한국   대만   중국   일본 
?????? ??????-??????? - ????????? ????? ??? ???????

?????? ??????-???????

?? ?????????? ???????? ?????
?????? ??????-???????
عصر كمبريعصر أردوفيسيعصر سيلوريعصر ديفونيعصر كربونيعصر برميعصر ثلاثيالعصر الجوراسيعصر طباشيريباليوجيننيوجين
??? ???????? ?????? ???? ??? ???????
%
????? ??? ???
عصر كمبريعصر أردوفيسيعصر سيلوريعصر ديفونيعصر كربونيعصر برميعصر ثلاثيالعصر الجوراسيعصر طباشيريباليوجيننيوجين
???? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? (??? ??? ????) ?????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?????. ??? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??????. ???????? ?????? ???????? "?????? ??????" ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? . ( ??????? ?????? ??????? )
??? ???????? ?????? ?????
??? ???????? ?????? - ???????
????? ???????? ???251.9 ????? ???
??? ???????? ???? ?????? ??????
????? ???? ?????
???????? ??????? ?????
???? ????????
???????? 		96% ?? ??????? ???????
70% ?? ?? ????? ????????? ???????.
????? ????? - ?????   طالع توثيق القالب

?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? [3] ?? ?????? ????? ??? ??? 251.9 ????? ???? [4] ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? . ??? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ??? 96% ?? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ? [5] ??????? ??? 70% ?? ?? ????? ????????? ???????. [6]

??? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? . [7] ?????? ??? 57% ?? ?? ???????? ?83% ?? ???? ???????. ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????. [5] ??? ???? ??? ????? ???? ≪?? ?? ?????????? ???????≫. [8]

????? ???????? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????. [4] [6] [9] [10] ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????. ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????????? ?? ????? ??????? [11] ? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? . ???? ????? ???????? ????????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????????.

????? ???????? [ ??? ]

??????????? ??????? [ ??? ]

????? ??????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????. ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????. ??? ????? 286 ?? ??? 329 ????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????. ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????. [12] [13]

??? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????. ???? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ???????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? . [14]

??? ???????? ???????? ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? (??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ?????). ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????. [15]

????? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? (??? ???? ??? ????)? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???????????? ????????? ? (????? ?????)? ???? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ???.

???? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ???????. ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??????.

???? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? 30 ????? ??? ??? ?????? (????? ????? ??????)? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? 10 ?????? ??? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ?????????. ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ????. ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????- ???????. ??? ???????? ??(????? ??????-???????) ??? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???????. ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???????. [16]

???? ???? ??????????? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??????. ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ???????? ?????  ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??????????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ???????. [17]

??????????? ??????? [ ??? ]

??? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????. ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????. ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? (??? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????) ?? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ?? ????????. ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????. [18]

???? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????-??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???: ??? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ???????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????? ????????. ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????. ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????. [19]

???????? ??????? [ ??? ]

??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? [ ??? ]

????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????????. ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ≪??? ???????≫ ??? ????? ???????. ???? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? (????? 50%) ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ?????????. ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ????????.

??? ???? ????? ??????-???????? ????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? (?????? ??????)? ??????? ??????? (??????? ?????). ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????. [20]

???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????. ?? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ???????? ??? ?? ????? ?????????. ?? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????. ???? ??? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ??????. ???? ??? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????. ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ?? 13 (δ13C) ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?????. ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? 4 ??? 5 ?????? ???. [21]

???? ????? [ ??? ]

?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????. ????? ≪???? ?????≫ ???? ???. ??? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ???????. ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????. ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? 10 ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????. ??????? ??????????? (??????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????)? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????. [22]

?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ???????. ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???????. ??? ??? ????????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??????. ????? ?? ???? ?? 95% ?? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ???????. [23]

???? ????? [ ??? ]

????? [ ??? ]

  1. ^ Munnecke, A.? Samtleben, C.? Bickert, T. (2003). "The Ireviken Event in the lower Silurian of Gotland, Sweden-relation to similar Palaeozoic and Proterozoic events". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology . ?. 195 ?. 1: 99?124. DOI : 10.1016/S0031-0182(03)00304-3 .
  2. ^ Jeppsson, L.? Calner, M. (2007). "The Silurian Mulde Event and a scenario for secundo?secundo events". Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh . ?. 93 ?. 02: 135?154. DOI : 10.1017/S0263593300000377 .
  3. ^ Barry? Patrick L. (28 ????? 2002). "The Great Dying" . Science@NASA . Science and Technology Directorate, Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2012-02-16 . ???? ???? ?????? 2009-03-26 .
  4. ^ ? ? Jin YG, Wang Y, Wang W, Shang QH, Cao CQ, Erwin DH (2000). "Pattern of Marine Mass Extinction Near the Permian?Triassic Boundary in South China". Science . ?. 289 ?. 5478: 432?436. DOI : 10.1126/science.289.5478.432 . PMID : 10903200 . {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }} : ????? ?????????: ????? ??????: ????? ???????? ( link )
  5. ^ ? ? Benton M J (2005). When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time . Thames & Hudson. ISBN : 978-0500285732 .
  6. ^ ? ? Sahney, S. and Benton, M.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" (PDF) . Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological . ?. 275 ?. 1636: 759. DOI : 10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 . PMC : 2596898 . PMID : 18198148 . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2018-08-12. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }} : ????? ?????????: ????? ??????: ????? ???????? ( link )
  7. ^ Sole, R. V., and Newman, M., 2002. "Extinctions and Biodiversity in the Fossil Record - Volume Two, The earth system: biological and ecological dimensions of global environment change " pp. 297-391, Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change John Wiley & Sons.
  8. ^ Erwin DH (1993). The great Paleozoic crisis; Life and death in the Permian . Columbia University Press. ISBN : 0231074670 .
  9. ^ Yin H, Zhang K, Tong J, Yang Z, Wu S. "The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary". Episodes . ?. 24 ?. 2: 102?114. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }} : ????? ?????????: ????? ??????: ????? ???????? ( link )
  10. ^ Yin HF, Sweets WC, Yang ZY, Dickins JM,. "Permo-Triassic Events in the Eastern Tethys". Cambridge Univ. Pres, Cambridge, 1992 . {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }} : ????? ?????????: ????? ??????: ????? ???????? ( link ) ????? ?????????: ?????? ????? ????? ( link )
  11. ^ Darcy E. Ogdena and Norman H. Sleep (2011). "Explosive eruption of coal and basalt and the end-Permian mass extinction" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . ?. 109: 59?62. Bibcode : 2012PNAS..109...59O . DOI : 10.1073/pnas.1118675109 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-02-19.
  12. ^ Dolenec T? Lojen S? Ramovs A (2001). "The Permian?Triassic boundary in Western Slovenia (Idrijca Valley section): Magnetostratigraphy, stable isotopes, and elemental variations". Chemical Geology . ?. 175 ?. 1: 175?190. Bibcode : 2001ChGeo.175..175D . DOI : 10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00368-5 .
  13. ^ Musashi M? Isozaki Y? Koike T? Kreulen R (2001). "Stable carbon isotope signature in mid-Panthalassa shallow-water carbonates across the Permo?Triassic boundary: Evidence for 13 C-depleted ocean". Earth and Planetary Science Letters . ?. 193 ?. 1?2: 9?20. Bibcode : 2001E&PSL.191....9M . DOI : 10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00398-3 .
  14. ^ Visscher H? Brinkhuis H? Dilcher DL? Elsik WC? Eshet Y? Looy CW? Rampino MR? Traverse A (1996). "The terminal Paleozoic fungal event: Evidence of terrestrial ecosystem destabilization and collapse" . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . ?. 93 ?. 5: 2155?2158. Bibcode : 1996PNAS...93.2155V . DOI : 10.1073/pnas.93.5.2155 . PMC : 39926 . PMID : 11607638 .
  15. ^ Foster, C.B.? Stephenson, M.H.? Marshall, C.? Logan, G.A.? Greenwood, P.F. (2002). "A revision of Reduviasporonites Wilson 1962: Description, illustration, comparison and biological affinities". Palynology . ?. 26 ?. 1: 35?58. DOI : 10.2113/0260035 .
  16. ^ Twitchett RJ? Looy CV? Morante R? Visscher H? Wignall PB (2001). "Rapid and synchronous collapse of marine and terrestrial ecosystems during the end-Permian biotic crisis" . Geology . ?. 29 ?. 4: 351?354. Bibcode : 2001Geo....29..351T . DOI : 10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0351:RASCOM>2.0.CO;2 . ISSN : 0091-7613 .
  17. ^ Wang, X-D & Sugiyama, T. (?????? 2000). "Diversity and extinction patterns of Permian coral faunas of China" . Lethaia . ?. 33 ?. 4: 285?294. DOI : 10.1080/002411600750053853 .
  18. ^ Bambach? R.K.? Knoll? A.H.? Wang? S.C. (?????? 2004). "Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity" . Paleobiology . ?. 30 ?. 4: 522?542. DOI : 10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0522:OEAMDO>2.0.CO;2 . ISSN : 0094-8373 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-02-22.
  19. ^ Jin YG? Wang Y? Wang W? Shang QH? Cao CQ? Erwin DH (2000). "Pattern of marine mass extinction near the Permian?Triassic boundary in south China". Science . ?. 289 ?. 5478: 432?436. Bibcode : 2000Sci...289..432J . DOI : 10.1126/science.289.5478.432 . PMID : 10903200 .
  20. ^ Twitchett RJ? Looy CV? Morante R? Visscher H? Wignall PB (2001). "Rapid and synchronous collapse of marine and terrestrial ecosystems during the end-Permian biotic crisis" . Geology . ?. 29 ?. 4: 351?354. Bibcode : 2001Geo....29..351T . DOI : 10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<0351:RASCOM>2.0.CO;2 . ISSN : 0091-7613 .
  21. ^ McKinney, M.L. (1987). "Taxonomic selectivity and continuous variation in mass and background extinctions of marine taxa". Nature . ?. 325 ?. 6100: 143?145. Bibcode : 1987Natur.325..143M . DOI : 10.1038/325143a0 . S2CID : 13473769 .
  22. ^ Cascales-Minana? B.? Cleal? C. J. (2011). "Plant fossil record and survival analyses". Lethaia . ?. 45: 71?82. DOI : 10.1111/j.1502-3931.2011.00262.x .
  23. ^ Labandeira CC? Sepkoski JJ (1993). "Insect diversity in the fossil record". Science . ?. 261 ?. 5119: 310?315. Bibcode : 1993Sci...261..310L . CiteSeerX : 10.1.1.496.1576 . DOI : 10.1126/science.11536548 . PMID : 11536548 .
?????? ?? ≪ https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=??????_??????-???????&oldid=64519883 ≫