한국   대만   중국   일본 
????? ??????? - ????????? ????? ??? ???????

????? ???????

?? ?????????? ???????? ?????
????? ???????
Triassic
τρι?δο?
????? ???? ????????
????? T
??????? ?????? ??? / ????
?????? ??????
- ????? ??? ???????
??? ???????
??????? 251.902 ± 0.024 ?.? .???
??????? 201.3 ± 0.2 ?.? .???
????? 50.602 ?.? ??????
??????
????????
?????? ???????
 
??????? ???????
?????? ??????? (?.?)
??????? ?237
?????? 247.2
?????? 251.902 ± 0.024
????????? ??????? ???????
رسم تخيلي لنباتات العصر الثلاثي.
??? ????? ??????? ????? ???????.
??? ????? ??????? ????? ???????.
???? ????????
?? ?????? ????? 		?????? 16% ???? [1] [2]
(80 % ?? ??????? ??????)
???? ???? ????? ???????
?? ?????? ????? 		?????? 1750 ??? ?? ??????? [3]
(???? 6 ??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????)
???? ????
????? ??? ????? 		?????? 17 ???? ????? [4]
(3 ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????)
????? ????????????
  • 245 ????? ??? ???: ????? ???? ?????? (??? ???? ??????)
????????? ? ????????
العصر الثلاثي
????? ???????
??????
??????? ???????? ?? ???????
???  ?  ????  ?  ???
-255 ?
?
-250 ?
?
-245 ?
?
-240 ?
?
-235 ?
?
-230 ?
?
-225 ?
?
-220 ?
?
-215 ?
?
-210 ?
?
-205 ?
?
-200 ?
←
←
←
?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? [5]
←
???? ????? [6]
←
?????????? ??????
??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? [7]
←
??????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????.
????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? .
????? ??????: ??? ?????? ??????.
(?.? : ????? ???)

??????? ?? ???????? ( ?????????? : Triassic )? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ? ???? ?? 251.902 ± 0.024  ??? 201.3 ± 0.2   ????? ??? ??? ? ???? 50.602 ????? ??? ?????? [8] [9] . ????? ?????? ? ????? ???????? . ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? . [10]

??? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??????-??????? ? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????. ???? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ?? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ?????. ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????????? ???? ??????????? ? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ??????. [11]

???? ???????? ????????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ???? ???????????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????????.

???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????.

??? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? [12] ?? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????. ??? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ?????. ?????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????-???????? ? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ????????? ??? ??? ??????????? ???????? ?? ????? ????????.

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ??????? ≪????????≫ (Triassic) ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? - ??????? ????? ? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? - ????? "Trias"=≪??????≫= ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? 1834. [13]

??????? ??????? [ ??? ]

?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ? ??????? ? ???????? ? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????. ???????? ??? ??????? ??:

????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? (?.?.???)
???????? ?????? ???????? ????
??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????????? ?? ??????????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ??????????? ??? ???????? ????????????? ???????????? ????????. ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????????. ????? ???? ???? ????????? ????????? . ????? ?????? ??????????? [??????????] ?? ?????. ???? ?????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? . ???? ?????????? ???? ????. ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??????? ???????. ???? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? . ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? . ?????? ???? ???? ????????? ?? ????????? . ????? ???? ???? ???? ????-???? ?? ???? ???????? ? ?????????? ???????? ???? (?????? ??? 260 - 225 ????? ???). ?208.5
?????? ?227
??????? ?237
?????? ???????? ?242
??????? 247.2
?????? ???????? 251.2
???????? 251.902 ± 0.024
?????? ???????? ????????? ????

????????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ??? ?????? (≪?? ?????≫). ???? ??? ?????? ??? ????? "C" ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? "C" ??? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ? ??? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?????? .

????? ????? ????? ????? ???????.

?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ???????? ("Panthalassa"). ????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????. ????????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????.

????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???. ???? ??????? ?? ?? ?????? ???????? ? ??????? ????? ???? ???????. ????? ???????? ?? ?? ??????? ? ???? ??????? ??????? ? ?????? ? ????????? ? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? . ???? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ???????. ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???????. ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????. [14]

???? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ??????. ??? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ??????. ??????? ?? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? (?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????????).

???? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ???. ??? ?????? ???????? ? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????. ???????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ????????.

??????? [ ??? ]

?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????. [15] ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ? ???????? ??????? ? ??????? ????? ????????. [15] ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????. [15] ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????. [15]

?????????? [ ??? ]

?????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? . [16] [17] [18] ????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????. [16] ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????. [17] ????? ????? ??? ?????? [??????????] ?? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? (?????? 210 ????? ??? ???) ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?????. [19]

?????? ???????? [ ??? ]

?? (????????? ???????) ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ? ???????? ? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????. ??? ??? ????????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????????????? ? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????? ??????? [??????????] .

?????? [ ??? ]

??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????????? . ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ???????. ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????????? ??? ????? ???????. ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???. [20] ???? ??? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ?????. [20]

???? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?????????? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ???????? ??????? ???. [21] ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? (??? ???? ??????? ??? ???????? )? ????? ?????? ???????? ? ????? ????? ???????? ?????????? .

?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? .

?????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???????:

  1. ???????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????-??????? .
  2. ????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ?????.
  3. ????????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? .

???????? [ ??? ]

???? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????? (???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? )? ??????????? ? ???????? ? ?????????? ???????? . ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ???????: ??? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????? . ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ( ??????? ????? ) ?? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? .

??????? [ ??? ]

???? ???????? ??????? (??????? ??????? ????????) ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? 659-645 ????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? 800 ????? ???? [22] ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????????. [23] ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????. [24]

????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? [ ??? ]

???? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????? [25]
????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ????

?? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????. ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? . [26] ???? ???????? ??????? ???????. ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ??????.

???? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ???. ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???: ????????? ???????? ? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????????? (?????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???? )? ??????? ??????? ? ????????????? ???????. ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ????????? ???????? ( ????? ??????? ) ????????????? ????????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ???????. ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? [??????????] ??? ???????????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????. [27]

??? ??????? ????? ???????.

???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????:

???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??? ???????? (??? ?????????????? [??????????] ) ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? (??? ????????????? [??????????] ) ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? (??? ????????????? [??????????] ? ????????????? ). ??? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???.

????????? ??????? [ ??? ]

???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????: [29] [30]

  • ??????? ??????? : ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ????? 220 ????? ???. ???? ????? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???????. ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ????.
  • ??????????? : ??? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ???????-???????? . ???? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????.
  • ???????? ??? : ??? ?????? ???? ?? ???????????? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????. ??? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?? 25 ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????. ??? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? .
  • ?????? ?????? : ??? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? . ????? ?????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ? ??? ????? ????? 1-2 ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???????? ??? ????????.
  • ?????? ??????? : ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ????????. ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ??? ?????? ?? ????????? ?????? ???? ????? ???????. ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????. ???? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????????? ????? ???????????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????.

???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????. ??? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????. ???????? ????????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? 30 ????? ??? ????? ?? ????. [10]

????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????: ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????????????? [??????????] ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???????.

???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??????????? ? ?????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? . ??? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ( ???????? ???????? ). ?? ?? ????????????? ??????????? [??????????] ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ??????????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????. ???? ????? ??????? (????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????)? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ???????? . ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ???????? ? ???????????? ? ??????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ????????? ??????????? ( ???????? ????????? ) ???????. ?? ??? ???????? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ????????? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???????.

?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????. ?? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ??????? ???????? ? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????. ????? ???????????? ?? ????????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????.

???? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ??? ≪????????? ????????≫ ?? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????. ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????. [31]

??????? ?????? [ ??? ]

????? ????? ? ?? ????????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ??????????? .

?? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ???????. ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ???????. ????? ??????????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ? ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????.

????? ????????? ??? ???? ??????????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?????. ????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????. ???? ??? ?????????????? [??????????] ?????.

????? [ ??? ]

????? ???????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????. [32]
  • ?? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ???????. ?????? ??? ???? ≪???? ?????≫? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????? . [33] ?? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??????-??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????. ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ??????. [34] ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?????. [35] ??????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????. [36] ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????????.
  • ????? ?????????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???????. ???? ??? ????????? ?? ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? 100 ????? ???. ??? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ? ?????????? ?????. ??? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ? ????? ?????? ? ???????? ? ?????????. [37] [38] ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ??????????? [39] ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????????. ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????. ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????. ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????? ??????. [40] ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ????????. ???? ????? ??? ???????? 50,000 ??? ?? ??????? ? 200,000 ??? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??? ??????.
  • ??? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????????. ???????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????. ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????. ????? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? 25 ????? ???. [41]

?????? ???????-???????? [ ??? ]

??????? ???????: ?????? ???????-????????
???? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? "End Tr"

????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????????. ????? ???????? ??????? ? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ????????????? . ?????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ? ??????? ????? ? ????????? ????. ????? ????? 22% ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????.

??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? (??????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ???????) ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? (???????? ???????? ???????). ?????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????. ????? ?????????? ??????? ????????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? .

?? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???. ??? ??? ?????? ????????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? 202 ??? 191 ????? ??? (?????? 40Ar/39Ar)? [42] ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? (CAMP)? [43] ???? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ???. ????? ????? ??????? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ????????? ?? ???? ? ???? . ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? 214±1 ????? ??? ???. ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????-???????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? 201.3 ????? ??? ???. ??? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????????. ????????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? 10±2 ????? ??? ???. ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????. [44]

????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????

??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ???????. ???? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? 12 ??? 17 ????? ???. ??? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????????. ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ( ??????? ??????? - ?????? ??????). ?? ???? ?? ????? ??? 2002 ?? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????. [45] ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ??. ??? ??????????? ? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??. ??? ???? ??? ???????? ???????? ???????????? ?? ??? ????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????.

?? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ( ??????? ).

???? ??? ?????????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????. ????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? 150 ????? ???. ≪??? ???????????≫ ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????????? ????? ?? ???????.

???? ???? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

  1. ^ Image:Sauerstoffgehalt-1000mj.svg
  2. ^ File:OxygenLevel-1000ma.svg
  3. ^ Image:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png
  4. ^ Image:All palaeotemps.png
  5. ^ McElwain, J. C.? Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record". Trends in Ecology & Evolution . ?. 22 ?. 10: 548?557. DOI : 10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003 . PMID : 17919771 .
  6. ^ Retallack, G. J.? Veevers, J. ? Morante, R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian?Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants" . GSA Bulletin . ?. 108 ?. 2: 195?207. DOI : 10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2 . ???? ???? ?????? 2007-09-29 .
  7. ^ Payne, J. L.? Lehrmann, D. J.? Wei, J.? Orchard, M. J.? Schrag, D. P.? Knoll, A. H. (2004). "Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction" . Science . ?. 305 ?. 5683: 506?9. DOI : 10.1126/science.1097023 . PMID : 15273391 .
  8. ^ "International chronostratigraphic chart v2018/08" (PDF) (???????????). {{ ??????? ??? }} : ?????? ??? ??????? |site= ?? ?????? ????? ??????? |website= ( help ) and ????? ?????? ?? |site= ( help ) .
  9. ^ Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the International Commission of Stratigraphy . ???? ?????? 2018-12-10 ?? Wayback Machine
  10. ^ ? ? Sahney, S.? Benton, M.J. (2008). "Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" (PDF) . Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences . ?. 275 ?. 1636: 759?65. DOI : 10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 . PMC : 2596898 . PMID : 18198148 . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2018-08-12. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }} : ?????? ??? ??????? |lastauthoramp= ?? ?????? ????? ??????? |name-list-style= ( ?????? )
  11. ^ Brusatte? S. L.? Benton? M. J.? Ruta? M.? Lloyd? G. T. (12 ?????? 2008). "Superiority, Competition, and Opportunism in the Evolutionary Radiation of Dinosaurs" (PDF) . ????? . ?. 321 ?. 5895: 1485?1488. Bibcode : 2008Sci...321.1485B . DOI : 10.1126/science.1161833 . PMID : 18787166 . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2014-06-24 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-01-14 .
  12. ^ " "Lethally Hot" Earth Was Devoid of Life?Could It Happen Again?" . nationalgeographic.com . 19 ?????? 2012. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-06-17.
  13. ^ Friedrich von Alberti, Beitrag zu einer Monographie des bunten Sandsteins, Muschelkalks und Keupers, und die Verbindung dieser Gebilde zu einer Formation [Contribution to a monograph on the colored sandstone, shell limestone and mudstone, and the joining of these structures into one formation] (Stuttgart and Tubingen, (Germany): J. G. Cotta, 1834). Alberti coined the term "Trias" on page 324  :
    "… bunter Sandstein, Muschelkalk und Keuper das Resultat einer Periode, ihre Versteinerungen, um mich der Worte E. de Beaumont’s zu bedeinen, die Thermometer einer geologischen Epoche seyen, … also die bis jezt beobachtete Trennung dieser Gebilde in 3 Formationen nicht angemessen, und es mehr dem Begriffe Formation entsprechend sey, sie zu einer Formation, welche ich vorlaufig Trias nennen will, zu verbinden."
    ( … colored sandstone, shell limestone, and mudstone are the result of a period; their fossils are, to avail myself of the words of E. de Beaumont, the thermometer of a geologic epoch; … thus the separation of these structures into 3 formations, which has been maintained until now, isn't appropriate, and it is more consistent with the concept of "formation" to join them into one formation, which for now I will name "trias".) ???? ?????? 2020-05-19 ?? Wayback Machine
  14. ^ "Lecture 10 - Triassic: Newark, Chinle" . rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-09-14.
  15. ^ ? ? ? ? Jacobs, Louis, L. (1997). "African Dinosaurs." Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs . Edited by Phillip J. Currie and Kevin Padian. Academic Press. p. 2-4.
  16. ^ ? ? Lidmar-Bergstrom? Karna (1993). "Denudation surfaces and tectonics in the southernmost part of the Baltic Shield". Precambrian Research . ?. 64 ?. 1?4: 337?345. Bibcode : 1993PreR...64..337L . DOI : 10.1016/0301-9268(93)90086-h .
  17. ^ ? ? Olesen? Odleiv? Kierulf? Halfdan Pascal? Bronner? Marco? Dalsegg? Einar? Fredin? Ola? Solbakk? Terje (2013). "Deep weathering, neotectonics and strandflat formation in Nordland, northern Norway". Norwegian Journal of Geology . ?. 93: 189?213.
  18. ^ Japsen? Peter? Green? Paul F? Bonow? Johan M? Erlstrom? Mikael (2016). "Episodic burial and exhumation of the southern Baltic Shield: Epeirogenic uplifts during and after break-up of Pangaea". Gondwana Research . ?. 35: 357?377. Bibcode : 2016GondR..35..357J . DOI : 10.1016/j.gr.2015.06.005 .
  19. ^ Fredin? Ola? Viola? Giulio? Zwingmann? Horst? Sørlie? Ronald? Bronner? Marco? Lie? Jan-Erik? Margrethe Grandal? Else? Muller? Axel? Margeth? Annina? Vogt? Christoph? Knies? Jochen (2017). "The inheritance of a Mesozoic landscape in western Scandinavia" . Nature . ?. 8: 14879. Bibcode : 2017NatCo...814879F . DOI : 10.1038/ncomms14879 . PMC : 5477494 . PMID : 28452366 .
  20. ^ ? ? Stanley, 452-3.
  21. ^ Preto? N.? Kustatscher? E.? Wignall? P. B. (2010). "Triassic climates ? State of the art and perspectives". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology . ?. 290 ?. 1?4: 1?10. DOI : 10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.03.015 .
  22. ^ How snowball Earth gave rise to complex life - Cosmos Magazine ???? ?????? 2019-05-09 ?? Wayback Machine
  23. ^ December: Phytoplankton | News | University of Bristol ???? ?????? 2019-05-09 ?? Wayback Machine
  24. ^ The rise of algae in Cryogenian oceans and the emergence of animals - ResearchGate ???? ?????? 2020-03-21 ?? Wayback Machine
  25. ^ Scheyer et al. (2014): Early Triassic Marine Biotic Recovery: The Predators' Perspective. PLoS ONE https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0088987 ???? ?????? 2020-06-01 ?? Wayback Machine
  26. ^ Vinn? O.? Mutvei? H. (2009). "Calcareous tubeworms of the Phanerozoic" (PDF) . Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences . ?. 58 ?. 4: 286?296. DOI : 10.3176/earth.2009.4.07 . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2017-08-09 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-09-16 .
  27. ^ Romano? Carlo? Jenks? James F.? Jattiot? Romain? Scheyer? Torsten M. (2017). "Marine Early Triassic Actinopterygii from Elko County (Nevada, USA): implications for the Smithian equatorial vertebrate eclipse". Journal of Paleontology . ?. 91 ?. 5: 1?22. Bibcode : 1974JPal...48..524M . DOI : 10.1017/jpa.2017.36 .
  28. ^ Agnolin, F. L., Mateus O., Milan J., Marzola M., Wings O., Adolfssen J. S., & Clemmensen L. B. (2018). Ceratodus tunuensis, sp. nov., a new lungfish (Sarcopterygii, Dipnoi) from the Upper Triassic of central East Greenland. Journal of Vertebrate PaleontologyJournal of Vertebrate Paleontology. e1439834
  29. ^ Prehistoric Life: The Definitive Visual History of Life On Earth . London: Dorling Kindersley. 2009. ?. 206, 207. ISBN : 9780756655730 .
  30. ^ Douglas Palmer & Peter Barrett (2009). Evolution: The Story of Life . London, Britain: The Natural History Museum. ISBN : 9781845333393 .
  31. ^ Ruben, J.A.? Jones, T.D. (2000). "Selective Factors Associated with the Origin of Fur and Feathers" . American Zoologist . ?. 40 ?. 4: 585?596. DOI : 10.1093/icb/40.4.585 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2009-08-29. {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }} : ?????? ??? ??????? |lastauthoramp= ?? ?????? ????? ??????? |name-list-style= ( ?????? )
  32. ^ Hosher? WT Magaritz M Clark D (1987). "Events near the time of the Permian-Triassic boundary". Mod. Geol . ?. 11: 155?180 [173?174].
  33. ^ Retallack? G. J.? Veevers? J. J.? Morante? R. (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian-Triassic extinction and Middle Triassic recovery of peat-forming plants". Bulletin of the Geological Society of America . ?. 108 ?. 2: 195?207. Bibcode : 1996GSAB..108..195R . DOI : 10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2 .
  34. ^ Holser? WT? Schoenlaub? H-P? Klein? P? Attrep? M? Boeckelmann? Klaus? ?????? (1989). "A unique geochemical record at the Permian/Triassic boundary". Nature . ?. 337 ?. 6202: 39 [42]. Bibcode : 1989Natur.337...39H . DOI : 10.1038/337039a0 .
  35. ^ Knauth? L. Paul (1998). "Salinity history of the Earth's early ocean". Nature . ?. 395 ?. 6702: 554?5. Bibcode : 1998Natur.395..554K . DOI : 10.1038/26879 . PMID : 11542867 .
  36. ^ Dott, R.H. and Batten, R.L. (1971) Evolution of the Earth, 4th ed. McGraw Hill, NY.
  37. ^ Florin? R (1963). "The distribution of Conifer and Taxad genera in time and space". Acta Horti Bergiani . ?. 20: 121?312.
  38. ^ Melville? R (1966). "Continental drift, Mesozoic continents, and the migrations of the angiosperms". Nature . ?. 211 ?. 5045: 116. Bibcode : 1966Natur.211..116M . DOI : 10.1038/211116a0 .
  39. ^ Darlington PJ, (1965) Biogeography of the southern end of the world. Harvard University Press, Cambridge Mass., on p 168.
  40. ^ Retallack? GJ (1995). "Permian -Triassic life crises on land" . Science . ?. 267 ?. 5194: 77?79. Bibcode : 1995Sci...267...77R . DOI : 10.1126/science.267.5194.77 . PMID : 17840061 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-03-27.
  41. ^ Retallack? GJ? Veevers? John J.? Morante? Ric (1996). "Global coal gap between Permian-Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants (review)" . Geological Society of America Bulletin . ?. 108 ?. 2: 195?207. Bibcode : 1996GSAB..108..195R . DOI : 10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2 .
  42. ^ Nomade et al.,2007 Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 244, 326-344.
  43. ^ Marzoli et al., 1999, Science 284. Extensive 200-million-year-old continental flood basalts of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, pp. 618-620.
  44. ^ Hodych & Dunning, 1992.
  45. ^ "NO SIGNIFICANT NONMARINE CARNIAN-NORIAN (LATE TRIASSIC) EXTINCTION EVENT: EVIDENCE FROM PETRIFIED FOREST NATIONAL PARK" . gsa.confex.com . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2003-11-06 . ???? ???? ?????? 2003-12-12 .

????? [ ??? ]


????? ???????
?????? ?????? ???????
???????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????
??? ???????
???? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????
???????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????
?????? ?? ≪ https://ar.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=?????_???????&oldid=64582273 ≫