한국   대만   중국   일본 
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هذه مقالةٌ جيّدةٌ، وتعد من أجود محتويات ويكيبيديا. انقر هنا للمزيد من المعلومات.
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????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? . [5] [6] [7] ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?????????? [8] ???? ????? ???? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? 1789 ??? 1799? ????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????????? ???????????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ??? 1830?.

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???? ????? ?????????? (aristocracy) ?? ?????? ????????? ?ριστοκρατ?α ( aristokratia ? ?ριστο? ( aristos ????? ≪??????≫? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? "κρ?το?" ??????????: "kratos" ????? ≪????≫. [9] ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???????? [10] ??????? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????.

?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ???????????. ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????. [11] ????? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????????? ????????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??????. [12] ??? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ???? ????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???????? ????????. ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????.

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????? ?????? ????? 15% ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ????? ?????????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????????. ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????????????. [11]

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??? ??????? ?????? ?? ????????? ????? ?? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????. ???? ???? ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? [11] ?? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ???????? ????????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????.

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???? ????? ???? ???? 16 ???? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ????: [14]

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???? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????. ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????????? ?????. [15] ????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ????? ????????? ????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????. ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????. [16]

????? ??????? ??? ??????????? ??????? ????????????? ?? ???? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ?????????? ?? ??? ????. ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???? 16 ??? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ???????????? ????? ???? ????? (?????????)? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????????? ??????????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?? ???? ?????. ??? ??????????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ???????? . ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????. ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ??????? .

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???? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? 50%? ???? ???????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????. [17]

??? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? (Eric hobsbawm) ??? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ??? 40 ??? 50 ?? ?????. ??? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??????????. [17]

???? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? [ ??? ]

??? ????? 18? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ????????????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????????????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???????? ?????. ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????? [18] ???? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ? ??????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????????. ???? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ???????. [19]

?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ??????????? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ??? ????? ??? ???????. .

??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?????????: ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?????. ???????? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ????????. [20]

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??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ????? [ ???? ?????? ] ? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????????? ??????????? [ ???? ?????? ] ??? ??? ???? 300 ??? ??? ?????????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ? ??? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? .

???? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ????????? ???????:

  1. ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????. [21]
  2. ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? .
  3. ???? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????.

??? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????????:

  1. ???????: ????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? .
  2. ????????: ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????.
  3. ???????: ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????. [22]

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?? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????? ????????. ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? . [23]

???? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????. ???? ????????? ????? ???? ??????? [24] ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??????. ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ≪??????? ??????≫ ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ????????? ?? ???????????? ??????????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??? 1775 ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ????? ??? ???????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ???????.

?????? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?????????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? (???????) ???? ??? ??? 1651? ??? ???? ???????? ?? ?????????? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ??? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ??????? ??????????. ????? ??????? ????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ??? ?????????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??????.

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???? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????. ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? [25] ????????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???????? [25] ????????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????. ????? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ???????? - ???? ?? ??? ??????? - ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????. [26] [27] [28] [29]

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  1. ^ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Histoire-GAⓒographie ???? ?????? 2015-11-21 ?? Wayback Machine
  2. ^ Decret du 1er juin 1958 portant nomination des membres du gouvernement ???? ?????? 2011-12-07 ?? Wayback Machine
  3. ^ Lessig? Lawrence (1993). "The Path of the Presidency" . East European Constitutional Review . Fall 1993 / Winter 1994 ?. 2/3: 104. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2017-10-11 – ??? Chicago Unbound, University of Chicago Law School.
  4. ^ "12 People Who Ruined France" . Politico . 29 ?????? 2015. ????? ?? ????? ?? 2018-07-02 . ???? ???? ?????? 2017-02-25 .
  5. ^ Linda S. Frey and Marsha L. Frey, The French Revolution (2004), Foreword.
  6. ^ R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (5th ed. 1978), p. 341
  7. ^ Ferenc Feher, The French Revolution and the Birth of Modernity , (1990) pp. 117-30
  8. ^ ?????? ?????? ?? ????? 1848 -1850_ ???? ????? ?? ??? 1850 ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Politisch-o-;-konomische Revue“ ????? 1? 2? 3? 5 ? 6? ???? 1850 ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ??? 1895 ???? ?????? 2017-08-25 ?? Wayback Machine
  9. ^ The Oxford Companion to British History , John Cannon (Editor), ????? ????? ??????? ? 1997, ( ???? 978-0-19-866176-4 )
  10. ^ The aristocrats: a portrait of Britain's nobility and their way of life today , by Roy Perrott, (London 1968), page5-10
  11. ^ ? ? ? ? ? ? ????? ?? ???? revolutionary-experiences ??? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??????: ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? 2018-04-02 ?? Wayback Machine
  12. ^ ???? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????: ???-???-?????-?????-??????-???-200-???? (????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????) ???? ?????? 2016-03-04 ?? Wayback Machine
  13. ^ ?? ???? ????? ?????? >>????? >> ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? 2020-05-18 ?? Wayback Machine
  14. ^ H. F. Helmolt, History of the World , Volume VII, Dodd Mead 1902, pp. 120?121.
  15. ^ Hibbert, p. 29.
  16. ^ For an overview of the time see, for example, Francois F. A. M. Mignet History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814 (1824, available on Project Gutenberg ): speaking of his arrival for the first session of the Estates, "the king appeared ... The hall resounded with applause on his arrival." Later, July 27, 1789, nearly two weeks after the storming of the Bastille, "when Louis XVI. had left his carriage and received from Jean Sylvain Bailly's hands the tricolor cockade, and, surrounded by the crowd without guards, had confidently entered the Hotel de Ville, cries of "Vive le roi!" burst forth on every side. The reconciliation was complete; Louis XVI received the strongest marks of affection." "???? ??????" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2006-10-24 . ???? ???? ?????? 2015-12-08 . {{ ??????? ??? }} : ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown ( link )
  17. ^ ? ? ??? ???? "??? ??????" ?"????? ????????" ???? ?????? 2015-12-22 ?? Wayback Machine
  18. ^ ?? ???? civilizationguards ??? ??????: ??????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? 2017-07-16 ?? Wayback Machine
  19. ^ asharqawsat [ ???? ?????? ] ???? ?????? 2009-02-27 ?? Wayback Machine
  20. ^ ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? 24 ????? 2011 ????? 11835 ???? ?????? 2018-04-02 ?? Wayback Machine
  21. ^ [?? ???? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ????? ?????:?????? ?????????? (1642-1660)_??????:???? ??????_ ??????:????? ????? ????? _????? 2011.]
  22. ^ ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ????????2011??39
  23. ^ ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ??? 05 - 07 - 2011 ???? ?????? 2017-07-11 ?? Wayback Machine
  24. ^ ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????? 32_????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??????_??????: ????? ??? ?????: ???? ??????? ? ???? ???????: 17 ?????? 2005 ???? ?????? 2016-09-24 ?? Wayback Machine
  25. ^ ? ? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????? 2018-04-02 ?? Wayback Machine
  26. ^ William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (2nd ed. 2003), pp.73?74
  27. ^ ?????? ???????? ? ?????? ????????? ??????? 1 ?????? 2013. ???? ?????? 2014-12-27 ?? Wayback Machine
  28. ^ ???? ?????? ???????? ? ?????? ?????? 1 ?????? 2013. ???? ?????? 2013-10-19 ?? Wayback Machine
  29. ^ ?????? ???????? ? ??????? 1 ?????? 2013. ???? ?????? 2017-08-05 ?? Wayback Machine

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