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??????	ethicist (en)
???????	????? ??????????

????? ??????? ? ? ?????????? ? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ?????. ^[1]

???? ???????? ????: ≪????? ???? ???????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ?????. ????? ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????.≫ ???? ???? ???????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????.

????? ????????? ????????? ??? ????????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ? ??? ????????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? . ??? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????. ??? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ??????. ??? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ????.

??????? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ????????? ???????? ????????. ???? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????:

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???? ?????? ??????? ?????.
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???? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ????? ??????? ???????.

?????????? ? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ????????? ? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ????. ^[2] ?????? ?????????? ??????????? "ethics" ???? ?? ?????? ????????? ethos? ???? ???? ≪???????≫. ??????????? ????? ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ???????????? ???????. ???? ?????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??????. ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????: ^[2]

?????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ??? (?? ??????)
?????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????
?????????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????
?????????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ????????

???? ?????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????? .

????? ?????????? [ ??? ]

????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????? "???? ???? ????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????"? ??? ???????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ?????. ^[3] ?????? ??? ????? ?????????? ????? "?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????. ^[3] ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? "????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ??????????? "ethics" ?????????? "morality"...??? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? "??????????" ??? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????." ^[4]

??????? ????? ?????????? : ?? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ( ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ) ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??????. ?? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????. ??? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????. ??? ??? ??? ?????????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ( ??????? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ???????? ????? ??????????? ??? ?????????? ?? ??????? ).

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?????????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? ?? ????. ^[5] ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? -??? ≪?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????????≫- ?????? ?? ?????????? ??????? (????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????). ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ≪?? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?????≫ ?? ???? ?????? ????

????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ??????. ??? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??????. ???? ?????????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ≪????? ???????≫ ??? ??? 1903. ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????? ≪???????? ????????≫. ???? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????. ??? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????. ?? ??? ????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ??????? ??????.

????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??????. ?????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??????. ??? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ???????. ??? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ?????.

????????? ?????????? ?? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????????? ?????????. ????? ??? ???????? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ????????? ????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ?? ???? ????. ??? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???? ?????. ?? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ???????????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????????.

???????? ????????? [ ??? ]

???????? ????????? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????. ?????? ?? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???????. ?????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ?????????: ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ???????.

?? ????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? .

????? ???????? ????????? ??? ???? ???? ?????: ????? ????? ???????? (?? ??????? ?????????)? ????????? ????????? ????????? ???????????. ^[6] ????? ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ???????????? ????:

(?) ??? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ??? ????????? ????????? (????????? ?? ????? ≪????? x ???≫? ? ≪????? y ?????? ????????≫? ???) ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??
(?) ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??????.

??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??? (?) ? (?) ???? ??????.

???? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ???

(i) ???? ????????? ????????? ??????
(ii) ????? ??? ???????? ??? ???? ????????? ????????? ??????
(iii) ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????.

???????? ????????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????. ?????? ???? ????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????: ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ?? ????????? ???? ??? ??? (i) ?????? (?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????).

??? ???????? ????????? ????????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ????. ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? (i) ??????? ??? ???????? ????????? ????????? ???? (ii).
?? ????? ????? ???? ???????? ????????? ?????????? (ii) ??????? ?????? (ii) ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????.

??? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ????????? ????????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? (?? ????? ?????? ?? ?????). ????? ?? ???? ??? ????????? ????????? ??????? (??? ???? ?????? ≪?? ???? ???????!≫)? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? (????? ≪???? ???????: ???!≫)? ?? ?????? ?? ≪????? ?????≫ (≪?? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ?? ???????? ??????≫).

??????? ????????? [ ??? ]

??????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ????????. ??? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????????. ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????????. ^[5] ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????????. ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ??????. ????????? ??? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ?????. ??? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ^[7]

????????? ??????? ????????? (???????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????) ?? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ??????. ???? ??? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ????????? ??????.

?? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????????? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ????????. ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ????? ????? ?????????? ???????. ??? ??????? ??? ?????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? .

???????? ??????? [ ??? ]

??? ???????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ??? ??????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ???????. ??? ????? (469-399 ??? ???????) ??? ????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???????. ?? ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????. ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??????. ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????. ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? (???????) ??? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ?????. ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??????. ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ?????. ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ????????. ????? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????? ????????. ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????. ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ???????? ????? ??????. ^[8]

??? ????? (384?323 ??? ???????) ?????? ???????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ≪??????≫. ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????. ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????. ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ???????. ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????. ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????. ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???????.

???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ?????: ????? (????/?????????)? ???????? (?????/??????)? ?????? (????/???????). ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????. ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????. ???? ????? ??? ????????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???????. ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ???????. ?? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???????. ???? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????.

???? ???? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

^ ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? - ????? ????? 30 ?????? - 2009 ???? ?????? 31 ?????? 2017 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ ^? ^? Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ???? ?????? 11 ????? 2018 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ ^? ^? Paul? Richard? Elder? Linda (2006). The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning . United States: Foundation for Critical Thinking Free Press. ?. np. ISBN : 0-944583-17-2 .
^ John Deigh in Robert Audi (ed), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy , 1995.
^ ^? ^? "What is ethics?" . ?? ?? ?? . ????? ?? ????? ?? October 28, 2013 . ???? ???? ?????? July 22, 2014 .
^ Moral Skepticism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) ???? ?????? 6 ????? 2019 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .
^ Cavalier? Robert. "Meta-ethics, Normative Ethics, and Applied Ethics" . Online Guide to Ethics and Moral Philosophy . ????? ?? ????? ?? November 12, 2013 . ???? ???? ?????? February 26, 2014 .
^ William S. Sahakian? Mabel Lewis Sahakian (1966). Ideas of the Great Philosophers . Barnes & Noble. ISBN : 978-1-56619-271-2 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-03-20.

?? ????? ??? ?????? ??: ????????

[1] ?????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? - ????? ????? 30 ?????? - 2009 ???? ?????? 31 ?????? 2017 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[iep.utm.edu-2] ? ^? Ethics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ???? ?????? 11 ????? 2018 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[ReferenceA-3] ? ^? Paul? Richard? Elder? Linda (2006). The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning . United States: Foundation for Critical Thinking Free Press. ?. np. ISBN : 0-944583-17-2 .

[4] John Deigh in Robert Audi (ed), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy , 1995.

[bbc-5] ? ^? "What is ethics?" . ?? ?? ?? . ????? ?? ????? ?? October 28, 2013 . ???? ???? ?????? July 22, 2014 .

[6] Moral Skepticism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) ???? ?????? 6 ????? 2019 ??? ???? ??? ??? ???? .

[7] Cavalier? Robert. "Meta-ethics, Normative Ethics, and Applied Ethics" . Online Guide to Ethics and Moral Philosophy . ????? ?? ????? ?? November 12, 2013 . ???? ???? ?????? February 26, 2014 .

[SahakianSahakian1966-8] William S. Sahakian? Mabel Lewis Sahakian (1966). Ideas of the Great Philosophers . Barnes & Noble. ISBN : 978-1-56619-271-2 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2020-03-20.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

? ? ? ????? ?????
??????? ???????	Agriculturalism ???????? Han learning ???????? ????? ???????? ????? Huang-Lao ?????? ????? Chinese Marxism School of Diplomacy ????? ??????? School of Naturalists ????? ????? Xuanxue Yangism Mixed School ???? ????: Nine Schools of Thought ?????? ????? ?????
??????	Cheng Hao Cheng Yi ????????? Gaozi Gongsun Long ??? ??? Huang Zongxi Huan Tan Hu Hong Jin Yuelin ?????? ?? ?? Lu Jiuyuan Luo Rufang ?????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? Su Qin Tu Weiming Wang Chong ???? ????? ???? ???? ????? Xu Xing Yang Zhu Zhang Yi ????? ??? Zhou Dunyi ????? ?? ??? ?? Zou Yan
??????	Dao : ?????? De : ??????? F? : ??????? ???? : ???? ?????? Jing : ??????? Jingzuo : ?????? L? : ???? ??????? L? : ????? ?? ??????? Mingyun : ??????? ?? ????? ??? : ????? Qing : ??????? Ren : ????????? S?n jiao : ???????? ?????? Shen : ????? S? : ???????? T? : ?????? Ti?n : ?????? ???? ???? : ????? ????? ?? ?? : ??? ????? ???? : ???? ???????? X?n : ??? ????? ???? : ??????? ????????? Xi? y?ng : ????? ????? Yi : ??????? ????? ???? : ??????? ????????? Yong : ??????? Zheng ming : ????? ??????? Zhi : ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ?????? Ziran : ????? ?? ???????
??????	Logic Theology ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? Role ethics State consequentialism ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? Sh?n shu? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????