Scotism and Scotists
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Scotism
This is the name given to the
philosophical
and
theological
system or
school
named after
John Duns Scotus
. It developed out of the Old
Franciscan
School, to which
Haymo of Faversham
(d. 1244),
Alexander of Hales
(d. 1245),
John of Rupella
(d. 1245), William of Melitora (d. 1260),
St. Bonaventure
(d. 1274), Cardinal Matthew of Aquasparta (d. 1289),
John Pecham
(d. 1292),
Archbishop
of
Canterbury
,
Richard of Middletown
(d. about 1300), etc. belonged. This
school
had at first but few peculiarities; it followed Augustinism (
Platonism
), which then ruled
theology
, and which was adopted not only by the
Parisian
professors belonging to the
secular clergy
(
William of Auvergne
,
Henry of Ghent
, etc.), but also by prominent teachers of the
Dominican Order
(Roland of
Cremona
, Robert Fitzacker,
Robert of Kilwardby
, etc.). These
theologians
knew
and utilized freely all the writings of
Aristotle
, but employed the new Peripatetic
ideas
only in part or in an uncritical fashion, and intermingled with
Platonic
elements.
Albertus Magnus
and especially
St. Thomas
(d. 1274) introduced
Aristoteleanism
more widely into
Scholasticism
. The procedure of St. Thomas was regarded as an innovation, and called forth criticism, not only from the
Franciscans
, but also from the secular
doctors
and even many
Dominicans
. At this time appeared
Scotus
, the
Doctor Subtilis
, and found the ground already cleared for the conflict with the followers of
Aquinas
. He made indeed very free use of
Aristoteleanism
, much freer than his predecessors, but in its employment exercised sharp criticism, and in important points adhered to the teaching of the Older
Franciscan
School especially with regard to the plurality of forms or of
souls
, the spiritual matter of the
angels
and of
souls
, etc., wherein and in other points he combatted energetically St. Thomas. The Scotism beginning with him, or what is known as the Later
Franciscan
School, is thus only a continuation or further development of the older
school
, with a much wider, although not exclusive acceptance of Peripatetic
ideas
, or with the express and strict challenge of the same (e.g. the view that matter is the
principium individuationis
). Concerning the relation of these
schools
to each other, or the relation of
Scotus
to
Alexander of Hales
and St. Bonaventure, consult the work of the
Flemish
Recollect,
M. Hauzeur
.
Concerning the character and teaching of
Scotus
we have already spoken in the special article, where it was stated that he has been
unjustly
charged with Indeterminism, excessive Realism,
Pantheism
,
Nestorianism
, etc. What has been there said holds good of Scotism in general, the most important doctrines of which were substantially developed by
Scotus
himself. Little new has been added by the Scotists to the teaching of their master; for the most part, they have merely, in accordance with the different tendencies of the day, restated its fundamental position and defended it. It will be sufficient here to mention two works in which the most important peculiarities of the Scotist
theology
are briefly set forth and defended Johannes de Rada, "Controversiae theol. inter S. Thom. et Scotum" (1598-); Kilian Kazenberger, "Assertiones centum ad mentem . . . Scoti" (new ed., Quaracehi, 1906). Reference may, however, be made to the influence which Scotism exercised on the teaching of the
Church
(i.e. on
theology
). It is especially noteworthy that none of the propositions peculiar to
Scotus
or Scotism has been censured by
ecclesiastical
authority, while the
doctrine
of the Immaculate Conception was soon accepted by all
schools
, orders, and
theologians
outside the
Dominican Order
, and was raised to a
dogma
by
Pius IX
. The definition of the Council of Vienne of 1311 that all were to be regarded as
heretics
who declared "
quod anima rationalis . . . non sit forma corporis humani per se et essentialiter
" (the rational
soul
is not
per se
and essentially the form of the human body), was directed, not against the Scotist
doctrine
of the
forma corporeitatis
, but only against the
erroneous
view of Olivius; it is even more probable that the Scotists of the day suggested the passing of the
Decree
and formulated it (see B. Jansen, loc. cit., 289 sqq., 471 sqq.).
Nominalism
is older than
Scotus
, but its revival in Occamism may be traced to the one-sided exaggeration of some propositions of
Scotus
. The Scotist Formalism is the direct opposite of
Nominalism
, and the Scotists were at one with the
Thomists
in combatting the latter; Occam himself (d. about 1347) was a bitter opponent of
Scotus
. The
Council of Trent
defined as
dogma
a series of doctrines especially emphasized by the Scotists (e.g. freedom of the will, free co-operation with grace, meritoriousness of
good
works
, the
causality
of the
sacraments
ex opere operato
, the effect of
absolution
). In other points the canons were intentionally so framed that they do not affect Scotism (e.g. that the
first man
was
constitutus
in
holiness
and
justice
). This was also done at the
Vatican Council
. In the Thomistic-Molinistic controversy concerning the foreknowledge of
God
,
predestination
, the relation of grace to
free will
, the Scotists took little part. They either supported one of the parties, or took up a middle position, rejecting both the predetermination of the
Thomists
and the
scientia media
of the
Molinists
.
God
recognizes the free future acts in His essence, and provides a free
decree
of His will, which does not predetermine our
free will
, but only accompanies it.
Jesuit
philosophers
and
theologians
adopted a series of the Scotist propositions. Later authorities reject in part many of these propositions and partly accept them, or at least do not directly oppose them. This refers mostly to doctrines touching the deepest
philosophical
and theological questions, on which a completely certain judgment is difficult to obtain. The following are generally rejected: formalism with the
distinctio formalis
, the spiritual matter of
angels
and of the
soul
, the view that the metaphysical essence of
God
consists in radical
infinity
, that the
relationes trinitariae
are not a perfection
simpliciter simplex
; that the Holy Ghost would be a distinct Person from the Son, even though He proceeded from the Father alone; that the
angels
can
naturaliter
know
the
secreta cordium
(secret thoughts); that the
soul
of Christ is formally holy and impeccable, not by the very fact of the
hypostatic union
, but through another
gratia creata
(the
visio beatifica
); that the merits of Christ are not
simpliciter et intrinsece
, but only
extrinsece
and
secundum quid
,
infinite
; that there are indifferent acts
in individuo
; that the
gratia sanctificans
and the
charitas habitualis
are the same
habitus
; that
circumcision
is a sacrament in the strict sense; that
transubstantiation
makes the Body of Christ present
per modum adductionis
, etc. Another series of propositions was misunderstood even by
Catholic
theologians
, and then in this
false
sense rightly rejected e.g. the
doctrine
of the
univocatio entis
, of the acceptation of the merits of Christ and man, etc. Of the propositions which have been accepted or at least favourably treated by a large number of scholars, we may mention: the Scotist view of the relation between
essentia
and
existentia
; that between
ens
and
nihil
the distance is not
infinite
but only as great as the reality that the particular
ens
possesses; that the
accidens
as such also possesses a separate existence (e.g. the
accidentia
of
bread
and
wine
in the Eucharist); that not only
God
, but also man can produce an
esse simpliciter
(e.g. man by generation);
haecceitas
as the
principium individuationis
. Also many propositions from
psychology
: e.g. that the powers of the
soul
are not merely accidents even natural and
necessary
of the
soul
, that they are not really distinct from the substance of the
soul
or from one another; that sense perception is not purely passive; that the
intellect
can recognize the singular directly, not merely indirectly; that the
soul
separated from the body forms its
knowledge
from things themselves, not merely from the
ideas
which it has acquired through life or which
God
infuses into it; that the
soul
is not united with the body for the purpose of acquiring
knowledge
through the senses but for the purpose of forming with it a new species, i.e.
human
nature
; that the moral virtues are not necessarily
inter se connexae
, etc. Also many propositions concerning the
doctrine
of the
angels
: e.g. that the
angels
can be numerically distinct from one another, and therefore several
angels
can belong to the same species; that it is not merely through their activity or the application of their powers that
angels
can be in a given place; that they cannot go from place to place without having to traverse the intermediate space; that they do not acquire all natural
knowledge
from infused
ideas
only, but also through contemplation of things themselves; that their will must not necessarily will
good
or
evil
, according as it has once decided. Furthermore, that Adam in the state of innocence could
sin
venially; that mortal
sin
, as an offence against
God
, is not intrinsically and
simpliciter
, but only extrinsically
infinite
; that Christ would have become man, even if Adam had not
sinned
; that the
human
nature
of Christ had its proper created existence; that in Christ there were two
filiationes
, or sonships, a human and a Divine; that the
sacraments
have only moral
causality
; that, formally and in the last analysis, heavenly happiness consists not in the
visio Dei
, but in the
fruitio
; that in
hell
venial
sin
is not punished with everlasting punishment; etc.
Scotism thus exercised also positively a wholesome influence on the development of
philosophy
and
theology
; its importance is not, as is often asserted, purely negative that is, it does not consist only in the fact that it exercised a wholesome criticism on
St. Thomas
and his
school
, and thus preserved
science
from stagnation. A comparison of the Scotist teaching with that of St. Thomas has been often attempted for example, in the abovementioned work of
Hauzeur
at the end of the first volume; by Sarnano, "Conciliatio omnium controversiarum etc." (1589-). It may be admitted that in many cases the difference is rather in the terminology, or that a reconciliation is possible, if one emphasize certain parts of
Scotus
or St. Thomas, and pass over or tone down others. However, in not a few points the contradiction still remains. Generally speaking, Scotism found its supporters within the
Franciscan Order
; certainly, opposition to the
Dominicans
, i.e. to St. Thomas, made many members of the order disciples of
Scotus
. However, this does not mean that the foundation and development of Scotism is to be referred to the rivalry existing between the two orders. Even Aquinas found at first not a few opponents in his order, nor did all his fellow-Dominicans follow him in every particular (e.g. Durandus of St. Pourçain, d. 1332). The Scotist doctrines were also supported by many
Minorites
, of whose purity of purpose there can be no
doubt
, and of whom many have been included in the catalogue of
saints
and
beati
(e.g. Sts.
Bernardine
, John Capistran, Jacob of the March, Angelus of Chiavasso, etc.). Furthermore, Scotism found not a few supporters among secular professors and in other
religious
orders (e.g. the Augustinians,
Servites
, etc.), especially in
England
,
Ireland
, and
Spain
. On the other hand, not all the
Minorites
were Scotists. Many attached themselves to St. Bonaventure, or favoured an eclecticism from
Scotus
, St. Thomas, St. Bonaventure, etc. The
Conventuals
seem to have adhered most faithfully to
Scotus
, particularly at the
University of Padua
, where many highly esteemed teachers lectured. Scotism found least support among the
Capuchins
, who preferred St. Bonaventure. Besides
Scotus
, the order had other highly-prized teachers, such as
Alexander of Hales
,
Richard of Middleton
, and especially St. Bonaventure (proclaimed
Doctor ecclesia
by
Sixtus V
in 1587), the ascetico-mystical trend of whose
theology
was more suited to wide circles in the order than the critical, dispassionate, and often abstruse teaching of the Subtle Doctor. In
Spain
the
martyred
tertiary, Blessed Raymund Lullus (d. 1315), also had many friends. It may be said that the whole order as such never had a uniform and special
school
of Scotists; the teachers, preachers, etc. were never compelled to espouse Scotism. His disciples did indeed call
Scotus
"
Doctor noster
", "
Doctor (vel Magister) Ordinis
", but even among these many partly followed their own course (e.g.
Petrus Aureolus
), while Walter Burleigh (Burlaeus, d. about 1340) and still more so Occam were opponents of
Scotus
.
It is only at the end of the fifteenth or the beginning of the sixteenth century that a special Scotist School can be spoken of. The works of the master were then collected, brought out in many editions, commentated, etc. Since 1501 we also find numerous regulations of general chapters recommending or directly prescribing Scotism as the teaching of the order, although St. Bonaventure's writings were also to a great extent admitted (ef. Marian Fernández Garcia, "Lexicon scholasticum etc.", Quaracchi, 1910; "B. Joan. Duns Scoti: De rerum principio etc.", Quaracchi, 1910, preface article 3, nn. 46 sqq., where many regulations of 1501-1907 are given). Scotism appears to have attained its greatest popularity at the beginning of the seventeenth century; during the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries we even find special Scotist chairs, e.g. at
Paris
,
Rome
,
Coimbra
, Salamanca, Alcalá,
Padua
, and Pavia. In the eighteenth century it had still an important following, but in the nineteenth it suffered a great decline. One of the reasons for this was the repeated suppressions of the order in almost every country, while the recommendation of the teaching of
St. Thomas
by several
popes
could not be favourable to Scotism. It has even been asserted that it is now merely tolerated; but this statement is
a priori
improbable in regard to a
school
of which not a single proposition has been censured, and to which so many highly
venerated
men (
bishops
,
cardinals
,
popes
, and
saints
) have belonged; and it is still less probable in view of the approval of the various general
statutes
(repeated so often down to the present day), in which Scotism is at least recommended. In their Decrees
Leo XIII
and
Pius X
have recommended not alone St. Thomas, but also
Scholasticism
in general, and this includes also the Scotist School. In 1897
Leo XIII
approved the "Constitutiones Generales Fratrum Minorum", of which article 245 prescribes for the members of the order: "In doctrinis philosophicis et theologicis antiqae scholae Franciscanae inhaerere studeant, quin tamen ceteros scholasticos negligant" (In
philosophical
and
theological
doctrine
they shall take care to follow the ancient
Franciscan
School, without, however, neglecting the other
Schoolmen
.) On 11 April, 1904, in a letter to the Minister General, Father Dionysius Schuler,
Pius X
expressed his pleasure at the revival of studies in the order in connexion with the
Franciscan
schools
of the
Middle Ages
, and on 19 June, 1908, in a letter to the abovementioned Father Marian, praised his book, "Mentis in Deum quotidiana elevatio duce B. Joanne Duns Scoto etc." (Quaracehi, 1907. See Marian, op. cit., n. 66.)
Scotists
Most Scotists are both
philosophers
and
theologians
.
Fourteenth century
Pupils of
Scotus
:
Francis Mayron
(d. 1327), a very fruitful writer, who introduced the
actus sorbonicus
into the
University of Paris
, i.e. the uninterrupted disputation lasting the whole day.
Petrus Aureolus
(d. about 1322),
Archbishop
of
Aix
. William de Rubione (about 1333). Jerome de Atharia, Order of the
Blessed Trinity
(about 1323). Antonius Andreae (d. about 1320) from
Aragon
, a
true
disciple of
Scotus
, who is said to have written several treatises attributed to the master. John de Bassolis (d. about 1347).
Alvarus Pelagius
(d. about 1350). Bishop Petrus de Aquila (d. 1371), called Scotellus from his faithful adherence to
Scotus
, of whose teaching he issued a compendium (new ed., Levanti, 1907-). Landulf Caraccioli (d. 1351),
Archbishop
of
Amalfi
.
Nicolaus Bonet (Bovet)
, who went to Peking and died as
Bishop
of
Malta
in 1360;
John Bacon, Carmelite
(d. 1346).
Fifteenth century
William Butler (d. 1410). Petrus de Candia (d. 1410 as
Pope Alexander V
). Nicolaus de Orbellis (d. about 1465), who wrote a commentary on the
Sentences
(many editions) William Vorilong (Vorlion etc., d. 1464), a celebrated
theologian
, who wrote a frequently quoted "Comm. super Sentent.", but who also followed St. Bonaventure. Angelus Serpetri, General of the Order (d. 1454). William Gorris (about 1480), not a
Franciscan
, who composed the "Scotus pauperum". Blessed Angelus of Chivasso (d. 1495), whose "Summa" (called Angelica) is extant in about thirty editions and contains a great deal of Scotist
doctrine
; it was publicly burned by
Luther
with the "Corpus juris canonici" in 1520. Antonius Sirretus (Sirectus, d. about 1490), famous for his "Formalitates", to which several later Scotists wrote commentaries. Tartaretus (about 1495),
rector
of the
University of Paris
, and not a
Franciscan
; Elector Frederick III of Saxony had his
philosophical
commentaries introduced into the
University of Wittenberg
at his expense. Thomas Pencket, Augustinian (d. 1487),
knew
Scotus
almost by heart, and edited his works. Francis Sampson, General of the Order (d. 1491), was called by
Pope Sixtus IV
, before whom he held a disputation, the most learned of all. Francis de Rovere (d. 1484 as
Sixtus IV
), who defended in a disputation before
Pius II
and also in his writings the
doctrine
that the blood shed by
Christ
on the Cross was released from the
hypostatic union
. Stephen Brulefer (d. about 1499), renowned professor in
Paris
and later a
Franciscan
, who wrote "Comm. in Bonavent. et Scotum" (often edited).
Sixteenth century
This period is very rich in names. The following may be mentioned: Paul Scriptoris (d. 1505), professor at the
University of Tübingen
, who had as students all the other professors and many other members of
religious
orders. Nicholas de Nüsse (d. 1509). Mauritius a Portu (d. 1513 as
Archbishop
of
Tuam
,
Ireland
), who wrote a commentary on many works of
Scotus
. Francis Lichetus, General of the Order (d. 1520). Anthony Trombetta,
Archbishop
of
Athens
(d. 1518), who wrote and edited able Scotist works. Philip Varagius (about 1510). Johannes de Monte (about 1510). Gometius of
Lisbon
(d. 1513), re-edited the often issued fourteenth-century "Summa Astesana". Frizzoli (d. 1520). James Almainus (about 1520),
Parisian
magister and not a
Franciscan
, favoured Gallicanism. Antonius de Fantes, physician, composed in 1530 a
Scotus
lexicon. Jerome Cadius (d. 1529). Le Bret (about 1527), wrote "Parvus
Scotus
". Paduanus Barletta (about 1545). James Bargius (about 1560). Johannes Dovetus, who wrote in 1579 "Monotesseron formalitatum Scoti, Sieretti, Trombettae et Bruliferi". Joseph Angles,
bishop
and celebrated moralist (d. 1587), wrote the often edited "Flores theol.". Damian Giner issued the "Opus Oxoniense Scoti" in a more convenient form (1598). Cardinal Sarnanus (d. 1595), a highly distinguished scholar, wrote a commentary on some
philosophical
works of
Scotus
, and edited the works of many Scotists. Salvator Bartolucci (about 1586), also a
zealous
editor. Felix Perettus (d. 1590 as
Sixtus V
).
Seventeenth century
Of very many names we may mention: Gothutius (about 1605). Guido Bartholucci (about 1610). Petrus Bonaventura (about 1607). Ruitz (about 1613) Smissing (d. 1626). Philip Faber (d. 1630). Albergonius,
bishop
(d. 1636). Centini,
bishop
(d. 1640). Matthaus de Sousa (about 1629). Merinero,
bishop
(about 1663). Francis Felix (about 1642). Vulpes (d. 1647) wrote "Summa" and "Commen. theologiae Scoti" in twelve folio volumes. Blondus,
bishop
(d. 1644) Gavatius,
archbishop
(d. 1658).
Wadding
(d. 1657), a well-known
annalist
, edited with other
Irishmen
in the
College of S. Isidore
at
Rome
the complete works of
Scotus
(12 vols., Lyons, 1639), with the commentaries of Pitigianus of
Arezzo
(d. 1616), Poncius (d. 1660), Mauritius a Portu (Mac Caughwell),
Archbishop
of
Armagh
and
Primate
of
Ireland
(d. 1626), and Anthony Illckey (d. 1641); reprinted
Paris
, 1891-95. Bricemo, named on account of his keenness of
intellect
the Second
Scotus
,
Bishop
of
Venezuela
(d. 1667). Belluti (d. 1676), edited with
Mastrius
a highly prized "Philosophia ad mentem Scoti" (many editions).
Mastrius
himself (d. 1673) wrote a celebrated "Disputationes theol." (many editions) and "Theologia ad mentem Scoti" (1671, etc.). Ferchius (d. 1666) wrote "Vita et apologia Scoti, etc." Bruodinus (d. 1664).
Herinckx
(d. 1678),
Bishop of Ypres
. Stümel (d. 1681 at
Fulda
). Boivin, highly esteemed
philosopher
and
theologian
(several editions of works, 1678, etc.) Sannig (about 1690). Lambrecht (about 1696), named the
Viennese
Scotus
. Bishop Gennari (d. 1684). Cardinal Brar 'catius (d. 1693), held in high favour by several
popes
. Hernandez (d. 1695).-Macedo (d. 1681), a Portuguese, professor at Padua is said to have composed over one hundred writings and was renowned for his public disputations.
Eighteenth century
Frassen
(d. 1711) was for thirty years a celebrated professor at the
Sorbonne
and wrote "Scotus academicus seu universa theo Scoti" (many editions, 1672, etc.; last ed.,
Rome
1900-), a very profound and lucid work. Du randus (d. 1720) wrote the great "Clypeus scotisticus (many editions). Dupasquier, "Summa phil." an "Summa theol." (about 1720; many editions). Hieronymus a Montefortino "Duns Scoti Summ. theol. ex universis opp. eius . . . juxta ordiner Summæ Angelici Doctoris" (6 vols., 1728-34; new ed., Rome, 1900-03), a very able work. Panger (d. 1732 at
Augsburg
), Scotist moralist. Kikh (d. 1769 at
Munich
), Scotist
dogmatic theologian
. Pérez López (d. 1724). Krisper (d. 1749). Hermann,
Abbot
of St. Trudbert, "Theologia sec. Scoti principia" (1720). Melgaco (1747). Bishop Sarmentero (d. 1775).
Nineteenth and twentieth centuries
In the nineteenth century, although Scotism was retained in the
schools
of the
Franciscan Order
in accordance with the
statutes
, we meet but few tractates
secundum mentem Scoti
, in any case no celebrated ones. The twentieth century appears to promise better. Father Fernández, a
Spaniards
, is a
zealous
Scotist. Beside the abovementioned writings, he has written a large "Scotus Lexicon", and is at present (1911) issuing new edition of
Scotus's
"Comment. in Sentent.' Another
zealous
worker is Father Deodat-Marie de Basley; his fortnightly journal, "La bonne parole" (now entitled "Revue Duns Scot."), contains much Scotistica. He is also engaged on the "Capitali opera B. Joan. Duns Scoti" (Le Havre, 1908) of which the "Praeparatio philosophica" and "Synthesis theologica credendorum" have already appeared. Father Parthenius Minges has explained and defended much of the Scotist
doctrine
in his "Compend. theolog. dogmat. specialis et generalis" (Munich, 1901-02), and in a number of other works.
About this page
APA citation.
Minges, P.
(1912).
Scotism and Scotists.
In
The Catholic Encyclopedia.
New York: Robert Appleton Company.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13610b.htm
MLA citation.
Minges, Parthenius.
"Scotism and Scotists."
The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 13.
New York: Robert Appleton Company,
1912.
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13610b.htm>.
Transcription.
This article was transcribed for New Advent by Kevin Cawley.
Ecclesiastical approbation.
Nihil Obstat.
February 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, D.D., Censor.
Imprimatur.
+John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.
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