Pope Leo XIII
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Born 2 March, 1810, at Carpineto; elected
pope
20 February, 1878; died 20 July, 1903, at
Rome
. Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi was the sixth of the seven sons of Count Lodovico Pecci and his wife Anna Prosperi-Buzi. There was some
doubt
as to the nobility of the Pecci
family
, and when the young Gioacchino sought admission to the Accademia dei Nobili in
Rome
he met with a certain opposition, whereupon he wrote the history of his
family
, showing that the Pecci of Carpineto were a branch of the Pecci of
Siena
,
obliged
to
emigrate
to the
Papal States
in the first half of the sixteenth century, under
Clement VII
, because they had sided with the
Medici
.
At the age of eight, together with his brother Giuseppe, aged ten, he was sent to study at the new
Jesuit
school
in
Viterbo
, the present
seminary
. He remained there six years (1818-24), and gained that classical facility in the use of Latin and Italian afterwards justly admired in his official writings and his poems. Much credit for this is due to his teacher, Padre Leonardo Garibaldi. When, in 1824, the Collegio Romano was given back to the
Jesuits
, Gioacchino and his brother Giuseppe entered as students of humanities and rhetoric. At the end of his rhetoric course Gioacchino was chosen to deliver the address in Latin, and selected as his subject, "The Contrast between Pagan and Christian
Rome
". Not less successful was his three years' course of
philosophy
and natural
sciences
.
He remained yet uncertain as to his calling, though it had been the wish of his mother that he should embrace the
ecclesiastical state
. Like many other young Romans of the period who aimed at a public career, he took up meanwhile the study of
theology
as well as canon and
civil law
. Among his professors were the famous
theologian
Perrone
and the scripturist
Patrizi
. In 1832 he obtained the doctorate of
theology
, whereupon, after the difficulties referred to above, he asked and obtained admission to the Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics, and entered upon the study of canon and
civil law
at the Sapienza University. Thanks to his talents, and to the protection of Cardinals Sala and
Pacca
, he was appointed domestic
prelate
by
Gregory XVI
in January, 1837, while still in
minor orders
, and in March of that year was made "referendario della Segnatura", which office he soon exchanged for one in the Congregazione del Buon Governo, or Ministry of the Interior for the
Pontifical States
, of which his protector Cardinal Sala was at that time prefect. During the cholera epidemic in
Rome
he ably assisted Cardinal Sala in his
duties
as overseer of all the city
hospitals
. His
zeal
and ability convinced Cardinal Sala that Pecci was fitted for larger responsibilities, and he again urged him to enter the
priesthood
, hinting in addition that before long he might be promoted to a post where the
priesthood
would be
necessary
. Yielding to these solicitations, he was
ordained
priest
31 Dec., 1837, by
Cardinal Odeschalchi
, Vicar of
Rome
, in the
chapel
of St. Stanislaus on the Quirinal. The post hinted at by Cardinal Sala was that of Delegate or civil Governor of
Benevento
, a city subject to the
Holy See
but situated in the heart of the
Kingdom of Naples
. Its condition was very unsatisfactory; the brigands of the
Neapolitan
territory infested the country in great numbers, survivals of the Napoleonic Wars and the guerrilla of the Sanfedisti.
Gregory XVI
thought a young and energetic delegate
necessary
.
Cardinal Lambruschini
, secretary of state, and Cardinal Sala suggested the name of Mgr. Pecci, who set out for
Benevento
2 February, 1838. On his recovery from an attack of typhoid fever, he set to work to stamp out brigandage, and soon his vigilance, indomitable purpose, and fearless treatment of the nobles who protected the brigands and smugglers, pacified the whole province. Aided by the
nuncio
at
Naples
, Mgr. di Pietro, the youthful delegate drew up an agreement with the
Naples
police for united action against brigands. He also turned his attention to the roads and highways, and arranged for a more just distribution of taxes and
duties
, until then the same as those imposed by the invading French, and, though exorbitant, exacted with the greatest rigour. Meanwhile the
Holy See
and
Naples
were discussing the exchange of
Benevento
for a stretch of
Neapolitan
territory bordering on the
Papal States
. When Mgr. Pecci heard of this he memorialized the
Holy See
so strongly against it that the negotiations were broken off.
The results obtained in three years by the delegate at
Benevento
led
Gregory XVI
to entrust another delegation to him where a strong
personality
was required, though for very different reasons. He was first destined for
Spoleto
, but on 17 July, 1841, he was sent to
Perugia
, a hotbed of the anti-papal revolutionary party. For three years he improved the material conditions of his territory and introduced a more expeditious and economical administration of
justice
. He also began a savings bank to assist small tradesmen and farmers with loans at a low rate of interest, reformed
educational
methods, and was otherwise active for the common welfare.
In January, 1843, he was appointed
nuncio
to
Brussels
, as successor of Mgr. Fornari, appointed
nuncio
at
Paris
. On 19 Feb., he was
consecrated
titular
Archbishop
of Damiata by
Cardinal Lambruschini
, and set out for his post. On his arrival he found rather critical conditions. The
school
question was warmly debated between the
Catholic
majority and the Liberal minority. He encouraged the
bishops
and the
laity
in their struggle for
Catholic
schools
, yet he was able to win the good will of the Court, not only of the
pious
Queen Louise, but also of King Leopold I, strongly Liberal in his views. The new
nuncio
succeeded in uniting the
Catholics
, and to him is owing the
idea
of a
Belgian
college in
Rome
(1844). He made a journey (1845) through
Rhenish Prussia
(Cologne,
Mainz
,
Trier
), and owing to his vigilance the
schismatic
agitation of the
priest
Ronge, on the occasion of the exposition of the Holy Coat of
Trier
in 1844, did not affect
Belgium
. Meanwhile the
See of Perugia
became
vacant
, and
Gregory XVI
, moved by the wishes of the
Perugians
and the needs of that city and district, appointed Mgr. Pecci
Bishop
of
Perugia
, retaining however the title of
archbishop
.
With a very flattering autograph letter from King Leopold, Mgr. Pecci left
Brussels
to spend a month in
London
and another in
Paris
. This brought him in touch with both courts, and afforded him opportunities for meeting many eminent men, among others
Wiseman
, afterwards
cardinal
. Rich in experience and in new
ideas
, and with greatly broadened views, he returned to
Rome
on 26 May, 1846, where he found the
pope
on his deathbed, so that he was unable to report to him. He made his solemn entry into
Perugia
27 July, 1846, where he remained for thirty-two years.
Gregory XVI
had intended to make him a
cardinal
, but his death and the events that troubled the opening years of the pontificate of
Pius IX
postponed this
honour
until 19 December, 1853.
Pius IX
desired to have him near his
person
, and repeatedly offered him a
suburbicarian
see, but Mgr. Pecci preferred
Perugia
, and perhaps was not in accord with
Cardinal Antonelli
. It is certainly
untrue
that
Pius IX
designedly left him in
Perugia
, much more
untrue
that he did so because Pecci's views were liberalistic and conciliatory. As
Bishop
of
Perugia
he sought chiefly to inculcate
piety
and
knowledge
of the
truths
of Faith. He insisted that his
priests
should preach, and should
catechise
not only the young but the grown up; and for this purpose he wished one hour in the afternoon set apart on
Sundays
and feast days, thus forestalling one of the regulations laid down by
Pius X
in 1905 for the whole Church. He brought out a new edition of the
diocesan
catechism
(1856), and for his
clergy
he wrote a practical guide for the exercise of the ministry (1857). He provided frequently for retreats and missions. After the
Piedmontese
occupation and the suppression of the
religious
orders the number of
priests
was greatly diminished; to remedy this lack of
ecclesiastical
ministers
, he established an association of
diocesan
missionaries ready to go wherever sent (1875). He sought to create a learned and virtuous
clergy
, and for this purpose spent much care on the material, moral, and scientific equipment of his
seminary
, which he called the apple of his eye. Between 1846 and 1850 he enlarged its buildings at considerable personal sacrifice, secured excellent professors, presided at examinations, and himself gave occasional instruction. He introduced the study of the philosophy and
theology
of
St. Thomas
, and in 1872 established an "Accademia di S. Tommaso", which he had planned as far back as 1858.
In 1872 also he introduced the government standards for studies of the secondary
schools
and colleges. When the funds of the
seminary
were converted into state bonds, its revenues were seriously affected, and this entailed new
sacrifices
on the
bishop
. With the exception of a few troublesome
priests
who relied on the protection of the new government, the discipline of the
clergy
was excellent. For the assistance of many
priests
impoverished by the confiscation of church funds, he instituted in 1873 the Society of S. Gioacchino, and for charitable works generally, conferences of
St. Vincent de Paul
. He remodelled many
educational institutions
for the young and began others, for the care of which he invited from
Belgium
nuns
of the Sacred Heart and Brothers of Mercy. During his episcopate thirty-six new churches were built in the diocese. His charity and foresight worked marvels during the famine of 1854, consequent on the earthquake which had laid waste a large part of Umbria. Throughout the political troubles of the period, he was a strong supporter of the temporal power of the
Holy See
, but he was careful to avoid anything that might give the new government pretext for further annoyances.
Shortly after his arrival in
Perugia
there occurred a popular commotion which his personal intervention succeeded in appeasing. In 1849, when bands of Garibaldians expelled from
Rome
were infesting the Umbrian hills, the Austrians under Prince Liechtenstein hastened to occupy
Perugia
, but Mgr. Pecci, realizing that this foreign occupation would only increase the irritation of the inhabitants, set out for the Austrian camp and succeeded in saving the town from occupation. In 1859 a few outlaws set up in
Perugia
a provisional government; when the
cardinal
heard that, few as they were, they were preparing to resist the pontifical troops advancing under Colonel Schmidt he wrote a generous letter to try and dissuade them from their mad purpose and to avoid a useless shedding of blood. Unfortunately they spurned his advice, and the result was the so-called "Massacre of Perugia" (20 June). In February, 1860, he wrote a pastoral letter on the necessity of the temporal power of the
Holy See
; but on 14 September of that year
Perugia
and Umbria were annexed to
Piedmont
. In vain he besought General Fanti not to bombard the town; and during the first years that followed the annexation he wrote, either in his own name or in the name of the
bishops
of Umbria, eighteen protests against the various
laws
and regulations of the new Government on
ecclesiastical
matters: against
civil marriage
, the suppression of the
religious
orders and the inhuman cruelty of their oppressors, the "Placet" and
"Exequatur"
in
ecclesiastical
nominations, military service for
ecclesiastics
, and the confiscation of
church property
. But withal he was so cautious and prudent, in spite of his outspokenness, that he was never in serious difficulties with the
civil power
. Only once was he brought before the courts, and then he was acquitted.
In August, 1877, on the death of Cardinal de Angelis,
Pius IX
appointed him camerlengo, so that he was
obliged
to reside in
Rome
.
Pope Pius
died 7 February, 1878, and during his closing years the Liberal press had often insinuated that the Italian Government should take a hand in the
conclave
and occupy the Vatican. However the Russo-Turkish War and the sudden death of Victor Emmanuel II (9 January, 1878) distracted the attention of the Government, the
conclave
proceeded as usual, and after the three scrutinies Cardinal Pecci was elected by forty-four votes out of sixty-one
Shortly before this he had written an inspiring pastoral to his flock on the
Church
and civilization. Ecclesiastical affairs were in a difficult and tangled state.
Pius IX
, it is
true
, had won for the
papacy
the
love
and veneration of
Christendom
, and even the admiration of its adversaries. But, though inwardly strengthened, its relations with the
civil powers
had either ceased or were far from cordial. But the fine diplomatic tact of Leo succeeded in staving off ruptures, in smoothing over difficulties, and in establishing good relations with almost all the powers.
Throughout his entire pontificate he was able to keep on good terms with
France
, and he pledged himself to its Government that he would call on all
Catholics
to accept the Republic. But in spite of his efforts very few monarchists listened to him, and towards the end of his life he beheld the coming failure of his French policy, though he was spared the pain of witnessing the final catastrophe which not even he could have averted. It was to Leo that
France
owed her alliance with
Russia
; in this way he offset the Triple Alliance, hoped to ward off impending conflicts, and expected friendly assistance for the solution of the Roman question. With
Germany
he was more fortunate. On the very day of his election, when notifying the emperor of the event, he expressed the hope of seeing relations with the German Government re-established, and, though the emperor's reply was coldly civil, the ice was broken. Soon Bismarck, unable to govern with the
Liberals
, to win whose favour he had started the
Kulturkampf
, found he needed the
Centre Party
, or
Catholics
, and was willing to come to terms. As early as 1878 negotiations began at Kissingen between Bismarck and Aloisi-Masella, the
nuncio
to
Munich
; they were carried a step farther at
Venice
between the
nuncio
Jacobini and Prince von Reuss; soon after this some of the
Prussian
laws
against the
Church
were relaxed. From about 1883
bishops
began to be appointed to various sees, and some of the exiled
bishops
were allowed to return. By 1884 diplomatic relations were renewed, and in 1887 a
modus vivendi
between
Church and State
was brought about. Bismarck proposed that Pope Leo should arbitrate between
Germany
and
Spain
. The good feeling with
Germany
found expression in the three visits paid Leo by William II (1888, 1893, and 1903), whose father also, when crown prince (1883) had visited the Vatican. As a sort of
quid pro quo
Bismarck thought the
pope
ought to use his authority to prevent the
Catholics
from opposing some of his political schemes. Only once did Leo interfere in a parliamentary question, and then his advice was followed. In 1880 relations with the
Belgian
Government were again broken off à propos of the
school
question, on the pretext that the
pope
was lending himself to duplicity, encouraging the
bishops
to resist, and pretending to the Government that he was urging moderation. As a matter of fact, the suppression of the
Belgian
embassy to the Vatican had been settled on before the
school
question arose. In 1883 the new
Catholic
Government restored it. During Pope Leo's pontificate the condition of the
Church
in
Switzerland
improved somewhat, especially in the Ficino, in Aargau, and in Basle. In
Russia
Soloviev's attempt on Alexander II (14 April, 1879) and the silver jubilee of that czar's reign (1888) gave the
pope
an opportunity to attempt a
rapprochement
. But it was not until after
Alexander III
came to the throne (1883) that an agreement was reached, by which a few
episcopal sees
were tolerated and some of the more stringent
laws
against the
Catholic
clergy
slightly relaxed. But when in 1884, Leo consented to present to the czar a petition from the
Ruthenian
Catholics
against the oppression they had to suffer, the
persecution
only increased in bitterness. In the last year of
Alexander III
(May, 1894) diplomatic relations were re-established. On the day of his election, Leo had expressed to this emperor the wish to see diplomatic relations restored; Alexander, like William, though more warmly, answered in a non-committal manner. In the meantime Leo was careful to exhort the Poles under Russian domination to be loyal subjects.
Among the acts of Leo XIII that affected in a particular way the English-speaking world may be mentioned: for
England
, the elevation of
John Henry Newman
to the
cardinalate
(1879), the "Romanos Pontifices" of 1881 concerning the relations of the
hierarchy
and the
regular
clergy
, the
beatification
(1886) of fifty
English martyrs
, the celebration of the thirteenth centenary of
St. Gregory the Great
, Apostle of
England
(1891), the Encyclicals "Ad Anglos" of 1895, on the return to
Catholic
unity, and the "Apostolicæ Curæ" of 1896, on the non-validity of the
Anglican orders
. He restored the Scotch
hierarchy
in 1878, and in 1898 addressed to the Scotch a very touching letter. In English
India
Pope Leo established the
hierarchy
in 1886, and regulated there long-standing conflicts with the Portugese authorities. In 1903 King Edward VII paid him a visit at the Vatican. The
Irish
Church experienced his pastoral solicitude on many occasions. His letter to Archbishop McCabe of
Dublin
(1881), the elevation of the same
prelate
to the
cardinalate
in 1882, the calling of the
Irish
bishops
to
Rome
in 1885, the
decree
of the Holy Office (13 April, 1888) on the plan of campaign and
boycotting
, and the subsequent
Encyclical
of 24 June, 1888, to the
Irish
hierarchy
represent in part his fatherly concern for the
Irish
people, however diverse the feelings they aroused at the height of the land agitation.
The
United States
at all times attracted the attention and admiration of Pope Leo. He confimed the decrees of the Third
Plenary Council of Baltimore
(1884), and raised to the
cardinalate
Archbishop Gibbons of that city (1886). His favourable action (1888), at the instance of Cardinal Gibbons, towards the Knights of Labour won him general approval. In 1889 he sent a
papal
delegate,
Monsignor Satolli
, to represent him at Washington on the occasion of the foundation of the
Catholic University of America
. The Apostolic Delegation at Washington was founded in 1892; in the same year appeared his
Encyclical on Christopher Columbus
. In 1893 he participated in the
Chicago
Exposition held to commemorate the fourth centenary of the discovery of America; this he did by the loan of valuable
relics
, and by sending
Monsignor Satolli
to represent him. In 1895 he addressed to the
hierarchy
of the
United States
his memorable
Encyclical
"Longinqua Oceani Spatia"; in 1898 appeared his letter "Testem Benevolentiæ" to Cardinal Gibbons on "Americanism"; and in 1902 his admirable letter to the American
hierarchy
in response to their congratulations on his pontifical jubilee. In
Canada
he confirmed the agreement made with the
Province of Quebec
(1889) for the settlement of the Jesuit Estates question, and in 1897 sent Monsignor Merry del Val to treat in his name with the Government concerning the obnoxious Manitoba School Law. His name will also long be held in benediction in South America for the First Plenary Council of Latin America held at
Rome
(1899), and for his noble
Encyclical
to the
bishops
of
Brazil
on the abolition of slavery (1888).
In
Portugal
the Government ceased to support the Goan
schism
, and in 1886 a concordat was drawn up. Concordats with Montenegro (1886) and Colombia (1887) followed. The Sultan of Turkey, the Shah of
Persia
, the Emperors of
Japan
and of
China
(1885), and the Negus of
Abyssinia
, Menelik, sent him royal gifts and received gifts from him in return. His charitable intervention with the negus in favour of the
Italians
taken
prisoners
at the unlucky battle of Adna (1898) failed owing to the attitude taken by those who ought to have been most grateful. He was not successful in establishing direct diplomatic relations with the Sublime Porte and with
China
, owing to the jealousy of
France
and her fear of losing the protectorate over
Christians
. During the negotiations concerning
church property
in the
Philippines
, Mr. Taft, later President of the
United States
, had an opportunity of admiring the
pope's
great qualities, as he himself declared on a memorable occasion.
With regard to the
Kingdom of Italy
, Leo XIII maintained
Pius IX's
attitude of protest, thus confirming the
ideas
he had expressed in his pastoral of 1860. He desired complete independence for the
Holy See
, and consequently its restoration as a real sovereignty. Repeatedly, when distressing incidents took place in
Rome
, he sent notes to the various governments pointing out the intolerable position in which the
Holy See
was placed through its subjection to a hostile power. For the same reason he upheld the "Non expedit", or prohibition against
Italian
Catholics
taking part in political elections. His
idea
was that once the
Catholics
abstained from voting, the subversive elements in the country would get the upper hand and the Italian Government be
obliged
to come to terms with the
Holy See
. Events
proved
he was mistaken, and the
idea
was abandoned by
Pius X
. At one time, however, "officious" negotiations were kept up between the
Holy See
and the Italian Government through the agency of Monsignor Carini, Prefect of the Vatican Library and a great friend of Crispi. But it is not known on what lines they were conducted. On Crispi's part there could have been no question of ceding any territory to the
Holy See
.
France
, moreover, then irritated against
Italy
because of the Triple Alliance, and fearing that any
rapprochement
between the Vatican and the Quirinal would serve to increase her rival's prestige, interfered and forced Leo to break off the aforesaid negotiations by threatening to renew hostilities against the
Church
in
France
. The death of Monsignor Carini shortly after this (25 June, 1895) gave rise to the senseless rumour that he had been poisoned. Pope Leo was no less active concerning the interior life of the
Church
. To increase the
piety
of the
faithful
, he recommended in 1882 the
Third Order
of St. Francis, whose rules in 1883 he wisely modified; he instituted the feast of the Holy Family, and desired
societies
in its
honour
to be founded everywhere (1892); many of his encyclicals preach the benefits of the
Rosary
; and he favoured greatly devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
Under Leo the
Catholic
Faith
made great progress; during his pontificate two hundred and forty-eight episcopal or
archiepiscopal
sees were created, and forty-eight vicariates or prefectures Apostolic.
Catholics
of Oriental rites were objects of special attention; he had the good fortune to see the end of the
schism
which arose in 1870 between the
Uniat
Armenians
and ended in 1879 by the conversion of Mgr. Kupelian and other
schismatical
bishops
. He founded a
college
at
Rome
for
Armenian
ecclesiastical
students (1884), and by dividing the
college
of S. Atanasio he was able to give the
Ruthenians
a
college
of their own; already in 1882 he had reformed the
Ruthenian
Order of St. Basil
; for the Chaldeans he founded at
Mossul
a
seminary
of which the
Dominicans
have charge. In a memorable encyclical of 1897 he appealed to all the schismatics of the East, inviting them to return to the Universal Church, and laying down rules for governing the relations between the various rites in countries of mixed rites. Even among the
Copts
his efforts at reunion made headway.
The
ecclesiastical
sciences
found a generous patron in Pope Leo. His
Encyclical
"Æterni Patris"
(1880) recommended the study of
Scholastic philosophy
, especially that of
St. Thomas Aquinas
, but he did not advise a servile study. In
Rome
he established the Apollinare College, a higher institute for the Latin, Greek, and Italian classics. At his suggestion a
Bohemian
college was founded at
Rome
. At
Anagni
he founded and entrusted to the
Jesuits
a
college
for all the
dioceses
of the Roman Campagna, on which are modelled the provincial or "regional"
seminaries
desired by
Pius X
. Historical scholars are indebted to him for the opening of the Vatican Archives (1883), on which occasion he published a splendid encyclical on the importance of historical studies, in which he declares that the
Church
has nothing to fear from historical
truth
. For the administration of the Vatican Archives and Library he called on eminent scholars (Hergenröther,
Denifle
, Ehrle; repeatedly he tried to obtain
Janssen
, but the latter declined, as he was eager to finish his "History of the German People"). For the convenience of students of the archives and the
library
he established a consulting
library
. The
Vatican Observatory
is also one of the glories of Pope Leo XIII. To excite
Catholic
students to rival non-Catholics in the study of the Scriptures, and at the same time to guide their studies, he published the "Providentissimus Deus" (1893), which won the admiration even of
Protestants
, and in 1902 he appointed a
Biblical Commission
. Also, to guard against the dangers of the new style of
apologetics
founded on
Kantism
and now known as
Modernism
, he warned in 1899 the French
clergy
(Encycl. "Au Milieu"), and before that, in a
Brief
addressed to Cardinal Gibbons, he pointed out the dangers of certain doctrines to which had been given the name of "Americanism" (22 Jan., 1899). In the
Brief
"Apostolicæ Curæ"
(1896) he definitively decided against the validity of
Anglican Orders
. In several other memorable encyclicals he treated of the most serious questions affecting modern
society
. They are models of classical style, clearness of statement, and convincing
logic
. The most important are: "Arcanum divinæ sapientiæ" (1880) on
Christian marriage
; "Diuturnum illud" (1881), and "Immortale Dei" (1885) on
Christianity
as the foundation of political life; "Sapientiæ christianæ" (1890) on the
duties
of a
Christian
citizen; "Libertas" (1888) on the real meaning of liberty; "Humanum genus" (1884) against
Freemasonry
(he also issued other documents bearing on this subject).
Civilization owes much to Leo for his stand on the social question. As early as 1878, in his encyclical on the equality of all men, he attacked the fundamental
error
of Socialism. The
Encyclical
"Rerum novarum" (18 May, 1891) set forth with profound erudition the
Christian
principles bearing on the relations between capital and labour, and it gave a vigorous impulse to the social movement along
Christian
lines. In
Italy
, especially, an intense, well-organized movement began; but gradually dissensions broke out, some leaning too much towards Socialism and giving to the words
"Christian Democracy"
a political meaning, while others
erred
by going to the opposite extreme. In 1901 appeared the
Encyclical
"Graves de Communi", destined to settle the controverted points. The "Catholic Action" movement in
Italy
was recognized, and to the "Opera dei Congressi" was added a second group that took for its watchword economic-social action. Unfortunately this latter did not last long, and
Pius X
had to create a new party which has not yet overcome its internal difficulties.
Under Leo the
religious
orders developed wonderfully; new orders were founded, older ones increased, and in a short time made up for the losses occasioned by the
unjust
spoliation they had been subjected to. Along every line of religious and
educational
activity they have
proved
no small factor in the awakening and strengthening of the
Christian
life of the whole country. For their better guidance wise constitutions were issued; reforms were made; orders such as the
Franciscans
and
Cistercians
, which in times past had divided off into sections, were once more united; and the
Benedictines
were given an abbot-primate, who resides at St. Anselm's College, founded in
Rome
under the auspices of Pope Leo (1883). Rules were laid down concerning members of
religious
orders who became secularized.
In canon law Pope Leo made no radical change, yet no part of it escaped his vigilance, and opportune modifications were made as the needs of the times required. On the whole his pontificate of twenty-five years was certainly, in external success, one of the most brilliant. It is
true
the general peace between nations favoured it. The people were tired of that anticlericalism which had led governments to forget their real purpose, i.e. the well-being of the governed; and, on the other hand, prudent statesmen feared excessive catering to the elements subversive of
society
. Leo himself used every endeavour to avoid friction. His three jubilees (the golden jubilees of his
priesthood
and of his episcopate, and the silver jubilee of his pontificate) showed how wide was the popular sympathy for him. Moreover, his appearance either at Vatican receptions or in St. Peter's was always a signal for outbursts of enthusiasm. Leo was far from robust in health, but the methodical regularity of his life stood him in good stead. He was a tireless worker, and always exacted more than ordinary effort from those who worked with him. The conditions of the
Holy See
did not permit him to do much for art, but he renewed the
apse
of the
Lateran Basilica
, rebuilt its presbytery, and in the Vatican caused a few halls to be
painted
.
Sources
BACH,
Leonis XIII Carmina. Inscriptiones, Numismata
(1903), tr HENRY (Philadelphia—);
Acta Leonis XIII,
26 vols. (Rome, 1878-1903);
Scelta di atti apostolici del card. Pecci
(Rome, 1879);
Conventiones de rebus ecclesiasticis
(14 vols., Rome, 1878-93); biographies by O'REILLY (1886); T'SERCLAES (3 vols., Paris, 1894-1906); SCHNEIDER (1901); JUSTIN MCCARTHY (London, 1896); FUREY (New York, 1903); SPAHN (1905); JEAN DARRAS (Paris, 1902); GUILLERMIN (Paris, 1902); BOYER DAGEN,
La Jeunesse de Léon XIII
(Tours, 1896); IDEM,
La Prélature de Léon XIII
(ibid., 1900); DE GERMINY,
La Politique de Léon XIII
(Paris, 1902); LEFEBVRE DE BÉHAINE,
Léon XIII et le prince Bismarck
(Paris, 1898); GEFFKEN,
Léon XIII devant l'Allemagne
(Paris, 1896); DE CESARE,
Il conclave di Leone XIII
(3rd ed., Città di Castello, 1887); BONACINA,
Continuazione della storia eccl. di Rohrbacher e di Balan
(Turin, 1899); DE MEESTER,
Leone XIII e la chiesa greco
(Rome, 1905); PROTZNER,
Die Entwickelung des kirchlichen Eherechts unter Leo XIII
(Salzburg, 1908). Cf. also
The Great Encyclicals of Leo XIII
, ed. WYNNE (New York, 1902).
About this page
APA citation.
Benigni, U.
(1910).
Pope Leo XIII.
In
The Catholic Encyclopedia.
New York: Robert Appleton Company.
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09169a.htm
MLA citation.
Benigni, Umberto.
"Pope Leo XIII."
The Catholic Encyclopedia.
Vol. 9.
New York: Robert Appleton Company,
1910.
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09169a.htm>.
Transcription.
This article was transcribed for New Advent by WGKofron.
With thanks to St. Mary's Church, Akron, Ohio.
Ecclesiastical approbation.
Nihil Obstat.
October 1, 1910. Remy Lafort, Censor.
Imprimatur.
+John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York.
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