Lithuanian-Ruthenian state
[Литовсько-Руська держава; Lytovs’ko-Rus’ka derzhava]. A
feudal
state of the 13th to 16th centuries that included Lithuanian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian territories. Each of its constituent principalities enjoyed a wide-ranging
autonomy
. The ruler was the grand duke, who was assisted by a boyars' council. From 1323 the capital was
Vilnius
. The state was shaped by its struggles with the
Teutonic
Knights, the
Principality of Galicia-Volhynia
, the
Tatars
, and then
Poland
and
Muscovy
.
Lithuania
began to encroach on Ukrainian and Belarusian territories during the reign of its founder,
Mindaugas
(1236?63).
Gediminas
(1316?41) and his son,
Algirdas
(1345?77), annexed the
Pynsk region
,
Berestia land
and the lans of the
Chernihiv principality
,
Siversk principality
,
Podilia
,
Pereiaslav principality
, and
Kyiv principality
. Weakened by
Tatar
attacks and internal strife, the Ukrainian
princes
offered little
resistance
to Lithuanian hegemony and joined its administrative system.
Political and cultural life in the
Lithuanian-
Ruthenian
state was based on the traditions of the
Kyivan Rus’
and Galician-Volhynian states. An official Ruthenian language evolved from the language used in Rus’. The
legal
system was based on the legal traditions of Kyivan Rus’ (see
Lithuanian-Ruthenian law
and
Lithuanian Statute
). The Lithuanians also benefited from the military expertise of
Rus’
in organizational and fortification skills. Dynastic ties between the
princes
of
Rus’
and
Lithuania
helped to maintain the Ruthenian influence. The Ruthenian princes belonged to the duke's councils and were part of the ruling
class
. The Orthodox church was allowed to develop freely, and it played an important role in the country's cultural and educational life. Manufacturing and trade developed rapidly in the
cities
and
towns. The situation changed abruptly after 1385, when
Jagiełło
(1377?92) concluded the
Union of Krevo
and assumed the Polish crown.
Jagiełło's pro-Polish policies aroused strong Lithuanian-Ruthenian opposition. The ruling
classes
resisted the Polonization and the Latinization of political and cultural life. Initially the opposition was headed by
Vytautas the Great
(1392?1430), who supported the Ukrainian
princes
and intended to make Lithuania-Ruthenia independent of
Poland
and to expand it southward and eastward. After being defeated by the
Tatars
in 1399, however, he had to come to terms with
Jagiełło
. The
Union of Horodlo
(1413) gave the
nobles
of the
Lithuanian-
Ruthenian
state, who were Catholic, equality with the Polish
nobility
but restricted the participation of Orthodox (mostly Ruthenian) lords in state affairs. A new opposition was headed by Jagiełło's brother,
?vitrigaila
(1430?5). His pro-Ruthenian policy resulted in a split in the Lithuanian-Ruthenian state: the pro-Polish forces installed
?ygimantas
(1435?40) as grand duke, and ?vitrigaila established his power base in
Volhynia
, which for a brief period became a separate state. After the death of
?ygimantas
Casimir IV Jagiello?czyk
(1440?92) was proclaimed grand duke. He continued his predecessor's pro-Polish centralist policy. To appease the growing opposition of the Ruthenian princes,
Olelko Volodymyrovych
(the grandson of
Algirdas
) was appointed ruler in
Kyiv
. The measure strengthened Ruthenian influence on state policy for a time. After ?vitrigaila's death (1452) the Volhynian principality was abolished, and after
Semen Olelkovych
's death (1470) Casimir installed the Polonized M. Gasztod (Gasztołd) as
voivode
of
Kyiv
. The Ruthenian princes responded to the growing Polish influence by organizing a conspiracy under the leadership of
Mykhailo Olelkovych
. The plot was uncovered in 1481, and many of its participants were executed.
The rise of Polish power prompted many Orthodox Ukrainian and Belarusian
princes
to look for aid to Muscovy, which had defeated the
Tatars
and was consolidating its centralist state. Ivan III of
Muscovy
proclaimed himself the defender of Orthodoxy and heir to the
Kyiv
dynasty. His action increased tensions and military conflicts between
Lithuania
and
Moscow
. By the early 16th century most of the territories of the
Chernihiv principality
and
Siversk principality
had been annexed by Muscovy. In 1508
Prince
Mykhailo Hlynsky
and his brothers led an anti-Lithuanian revolt aimed at separating Ukraine and
Belarus
from
Lithuania
and renewing the state of
Rus’
. Theirs was the last attempt of the Ukrainian princes to oppose Lithuanian and Polish power.
Poland spared no effort to bring
Lithuania
under its control and to transform the personal union signed at Krevo into a complete fusion of the two states. To that end it exploited the lesser Lithuanian nobility, which was promised equal status with the Polish nobility. The Lithuanian aristocracy, magnates and upper
nobility
continued to oppose the union, which they saw as signaling the demise of the
Lithuanian-
Ruthenian
state. In spite of strong Lithuanian opposition the union of the two states in the
Polish Commonwealth
was proclaimed in
Lublin
(1569) (see
Union of Lublin
).
Lithuania
preserved some of its
autonomy
, but the Ruthenian lands formerly under its control were divided. Except for parts of
Podlachia
and
Polisia
the Ukrainian lands fell under Polish rule, and virtually all the Belarusian lands remained under Lithuania. Lithuania's legal status within the
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
remained unchanged until
Poland
was partitioned in 1772, 1793, and 1795.
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Lelewel, J.
Dzieje Litwy i Rusi a? do unji z Polsk? w Lublinie
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Gramoty velikikh kniazei litovskikh (1390?1569)
(Kyiv 1868)
Antonovich, V.
Ocherk istorii Velikogo Kniazhestva Litovskogo do poloviny XV v.
(Kyiv 1885)
Dashkevich, N.
Zametki po istorii Litovsko-russkogo gosudarstva
(Kyiv 1885)
Leontovich, F.
Ocherki iz istorii Litovsko-russkogo prava: Obrazovanie territorii Litovskogo gosudarstva
(Saint Petersburg 1894)
Maksimeiko, N.
Seimy Litovsko-russkogo gosudarstva do Liublinskoi unii 1569
(Kharkiv 1902)
Liubavskii, M.
Ocherk istorii Litovsko-russkogo gosudarstva do Liublinskoi unii vkliuchitel’no
(Moscow 1910)
Picheta, V.
Istoriia Litovskogo gosudarstva do Liublinskoi unii
(Vilnius 1921)
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Kolankowski, L.
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Lubomyr Wynar
[This article originally appeared in the
Encyclopedia of Ukraine
, vol. 3 (1993).]