1918?1992 country in Southeast Europe
Yugoslavia
Jugoslavija
?угослави?а
|
---|
|
|
Anthem:
"
National Anthem of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
" (1919?1941)
"
Hey, Slavs
" (1945?1992)
|
|
Capital
and largest city
| Belgrade
44°49′N
20°27′E
/
44.817°N 20.450°E
/
44.817; 20.450
|
---|
Official languages
| Serbo
-
Croato
-
Slovene
(before 1944)
Serbo-Croatian
(de facto; from 1944)
|
---|
Demonym(s)
| Yugoslav
|
---|
Government
| Hereditary monarchy
(1918?1941)
Federal republic
(1945?1992)
|
---|
History
|
|
---|
|
| 1 December 1918
|
---|
| 6 April 1941
|
---|
| 24 October 1945
|
---|
| 29 November 1945
|
---|
| 27 April 1992
|
---|
|
|
|
? 1955
| 17,522,438
[1]
|
---|
? 1965
| 19,489,605
[2]
|
---|
? 1975
| 21,441,297
[3]
|
---|
? 1985
| 23,121,383
[4]
|
---|
? 1991
| 23,532,279
[5]
|
---|
|
Currency
| Yugoslav dinar
|
---|
Calling code
| 38
|
---|
Internet TLD
| .yu
|
---|
|
Yugoslavia
(
;
lit.
'
Land of the
South Slavs
'
;
Serbo-Croatian
:
Jugoslavija
/
?угослави?а
[ju??slaː?ija]
;
Slovene
:
Jugoslavija
[ju???slaː?ija]
;
Macedonian
:
?угослави?а
[ju???s?avija]
[a]
) was a country in
Southeast
and
Central Europe
that existed from 1918 to 1992.
It
came into existence
in 1918
[b]
following
World War I
, under the name of the
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
from the merger of the
Kingdom of Serbia
with the provisional
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
(which was formed from territories of the former
Austria-Hungary
), and constituted the first union of South Slavic peoples as a
sovereign state
, following centuries of foreign rule over the region under the
Ottoman Empire
and Austria-Hungary.
Peter I of Serbia
was its
first sovereign
. The kingdom gained international recognition on 13 July 1922 at the
Conference of Ambassadors
in
Paris
.
[7]
The official name of the state was changed to
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
on 3 October 1929.
The Kingdom was
invaded
by the
Axis powers
on 6 April 1941. In 1943, a
Democratic Federal Yugoslavia
was proclaimed by the
Partisan resistance
. In 1944,
King Peter II
, then living
in exile
, recognised it as the legitimate government. After a
communist government
was elected in November 1945, the monarchy was abolished, and the country was renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. It acquired the territories of
Istria
,
Rijeka
, and
Zadar
from
Italy
. Partisan leader
Josip Broz Tito
ruled the country from 1944 as prime minister and later as
president
until
his death
in 1980. In 1963, the country was renamed for the final time, as the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(SFRY).
The six constituent republics that made up the SFRY were the socialist republics of
Bosnia and Herzegovina
,
Croatia
,
Macedonia
,
Montenegro
,
Serbia
, and
Slovenia
. The Socialist Republic of Serbia contained two socialist autonomous provinces,
Kosovo
and
Vojvodina
, which after
1974
were largely equal to the other members of the federation.
[8]
[9]
After an economic and political crisis in the 1980s and the rise of
nationalism
and
ethnic conflicts
, Yugoslavia
broke up
along its republics' borders, at first into five countries, leading to the
Yugoslav Wars
. From 1993 to 2017, the
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
tried political and military leaders from the former Yugoslavia for
war crimes
, genocide, and other crimes committed during those wars.
After the breakup, the republics of
Montenegro
and
Serbia
formed a reduced federative state, the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(FRY) (known from 2003 to 2006 as Serbia and Montenegro). This state aspired to the status of sole
legal successor
to the SFRY, but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. Eventually, it accepted the opinion of the
Badinter Arbitration Committee
about shared succession
[10]
and in 2003 its official name was changed to
Serbia and Montenegro
. This state
dissolved
when
Montenegro
and
Serbia
each became independent states in 2006, with
Kosovo
having an
ongoing dispute
over its
declaration of independence
in 2008.
Background
The concept of
Yugoslavia
, as a common state for all
South Slavic
peoples, emerged in the late 17th century and gained prominence through the
Illyrian Movement
of the 19th century. The name was created by the combination of the Slavic words
jug
("south") and
Slaveni
/
Sloveni
(Slavs). Moves towards the formal
creation of Yugoslavia
accelerated after the 1917
Corfu Declaration
between the
Yugoslav Committee
and the government of the
Kingdom of Serbia
.
[11]
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
The country was formed in 1918 immediately after World War I as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes by union of the
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
and the
Kingdom of Serbia
.
[12]
It was commonly referred to at the time as a "
Versailles
state".
[13]
Later,
King Alexander I
renamed the country to
Yugoslavia
in 1929.
[14]
King Alexander
On 20 June 1928, Serb deputy
Puni?a Ra?i?
shot at five members of the opposition
Croatian Peasant Party
in the
National Assembly
, resulting in the death of two deputies on the spot and that of leader
Stjepan Radi?
a few weeks later.
On 6 January 1929,
King
Alexander I
got rid of the
constitution
,
banned national political parties
,
assumed executive power
, and renamed the country Yugoslavia.
[14]
[16]
He hoped to curb separatist tendencies and mitigate nationalist passions. He imposed a
new constitution
and relinquished his dictatorship in 1931.
[17]
However, Alexander's policies later encountered opposition from other European powers stemming from developments in Italy and Germany, where Fascists and
Nazis
rose to power, and the
Soviet Union
, where
Joseph Stalin
became absolute ruler. None of these three regimes favored the policy pursued by Alexander I. In fact, Italy and Germany wanted to revise the international treaties signed after World War I, and the Soviets were determined to regain their positions in Europe and pursue a more active international policy.
[
citation needed
]
Alexander attempted to create a centralised Yugoslavia. He decided to abolish Yugoslavia's historic regions, and new internal boundaries were drawn for provinces or banovinas.
[18]
[19]
The banovinas were named after rivers.
[18]
Many politicians were jailed or kept under police surveillance. During his reign, communist movements were restricted.
[20]
The king was assassinated in
Marseille
during an official visit to France in 1934 by
Vlado Chernozemski
, an experienced marksman from
Ivan Mihailov
's
Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
with the cooperation of the
Usta?e
, a Croatian fascist revolutionary organisation.
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
Alexander was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son
Peter II
and a regency council headed by his cousin,
Prince Paul
.
[26]
1934?1941
The international political scene in the late 1930s was marked by growing intolerance between the principal figures, by the aggressive attitude of the
totalitarian
regimes, and by the certainty that the order set up after World War I was losing its strongholds and its sponsors their strength. Supported and pressured by
Fascist Italy
and
Nazi Germany
, Croatian leader
Vladko Ma?ek
and his party managed the creation of the
Banovina of Croatia
(Autonomous Region with significant internal self-government) in 1939. The agreement specified that Croatia was to remain part of Yugoslavia, but it was hurriedly building an independent political identity in international relations. The entire kingdom was to be federalised, but World War II stopped the fulfillment of those plans.
[
citation needed
]
Prince Paul submitted to fascist pressure and signed the
Tripartite Pact
in Vienna on 25 March 1941, hoping to continue keeping Yugoslavia out of the war. However, this was at the expense of popular support for Paul's regency. Senior military officers were also opposed to the treaty and launched a coup d'etat when the king returned on
27 March
. Army General
Du?an Simovi?
seized power, arrested the Vienna delegation, exiled Prince Paul, and ended the regency, giving 17-year-old
King Peter
full powers.
Hitler
then decided to attack Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941, followed immediately by an invasion of Greece where
Mussolini
had previously been repelled.
[27]
[28]
World War II
At 5:12 a.m. on 6 April 1941,
German
,
Italian
and
Hungarian
forces
invaded Yugoslavia
.
[29]
The German Air Force (
Luftwaffe
) bombed
Belgrade
and other major Yugoslav cities. On 17 April, representatives of Yugoslavia's various regions signed an armistice with Germany in Belgrade, ending eleven days of resistance against the invading German forces.
[30]
More than 300,000 Yugoslav officers and soldiers were taken prisoner.
[31]
The
Axis Powers
occupied Yugoslavia and split it up. The
Independent State of Croatia
was established as a
Nazi
satellite state, ruled by the fascist militia known as the
Usta?e
that came into existence in 1929, but was relatively limited in its activities until 1941. German troops occupied
Bosnia
and
Herzegovina
as well as part of
Serbia
and
Slovenia
, while other parts of the country were occupied by
Bulgaria
, Hungary, and Italy. From 1941 to 1945, the Croatian
Usta?e
regime
persecuted and murdered
around 300,000 Serbs, along with at least 30,000 Jews and Roma;
[32]
hundreds of thousands of Serbs were also expelled and another 200,000-300,000 were forced to convert to
Catholicism
.
[33]
From the start, the Yugoslav resistance forces consisted of two factions: the communist-led
Yugoslav Partisans
and the royalist
Chetniks
, with the former receiving Allied recognition at the Tehran conference (1943). The heavily pro-Serbian Chetniks were led by
Dra?a Mihajlovi?
, while the pan-Yugoslav oriented Partisans were led by
Josip Broz Tito
.
[34]
The Partisans initiated a
guerrilla
campaign that developed into the largest resistance army in occupied Western and Central Europe. The Chetniks were initially supported by the exiled royal government and the
Allies
, but they soon focused increasingly on combating the Partisans rather than the occupying Axis forces. By the end of the war, the Chetnik movement transformed into a collaborationist Serb nationalist militia completely dependent on Axis supplies.
[35]
The Chetniks also
persecuted and killed
Muslims
and
Croats
,
[36]
with an estimated 50,000-68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).
[37]
The highly mobile Partisans, however, carried on their guerrilla warfare with great success. Most notable of the victories against the occupying forces were the battles of
Neretva
and
Sutjeska
.
On 25 November 1942, the
Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia
was convened in
Biha?
, modern day
Bosnia and Herzegovina
. The council reconvened on 29 November 1943, in
Jajce
, also in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and established the basis for post-war organisation of the country, establishing a federation (this date was celebrated as Republic Day after the war).
[
citation needed
]
The
Yugoslav Partisans
were able to expel the Axis from Serbia in 1944 and the rest of Yugoslavia in 1945. The
Red Army
provided limited assistance with the liberation of
Belgrade
and withdrew after the war was over. In May 1945, the Partisans met with Allied forces outside former Yugoslav borders, after also taking over
Trieste
and parts of the southern Austrian provinces of
Styria
and
Carinthia
. However, the Partisans withdrew from Trieste in June of the same year under heavy pressure from Stalin, who did not want a confrontation with the other Allies.
[38]
Western attempts to reunite the Partisans, who denied the supremacy of the old government of the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
, and the emigres loyal to the king led to the
Tito-?uba?i? Agreement
in June 1944; however,
Marshal
Josip Broz Tito was in control and was determined to lead an independent communist state, starting as a prime minister. He had the support of Moscow and London and led by far the strongest Partisan force with 800,000 men.
[39]
[40]
The official Yugoslav post-war estimate of
victims
in Yugoslavia during World War II is 1,704,000. Subsequent data gathering in the 1980s by historians
Vladimir ?erjavi?
and
Bogoljub Ko?ovi?
showed that the actual number of dead was about 1 million.
[41]
FPR Yugoslavia
On 11 November 1945,
elections
were held with only the Communist-led
People's Front
appearing on the ballot, securing all 354 seats. On 29 November, while still in exile,
King
Peter II
was deposed by Yugoslavia's
Constituent Assembly
, and the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was declared.
[42]
However, he refused to abdicate. Marshal Tito was now in full control, and all opposition elements were eliminated.
[43]
On 31 January 1946, the new
constitution
of the
Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia
, modelled after the
Constitution of the Soviet Union
, established
six republics
, an autonomous province, and an autonomous district that were a part of Serbia. The federal capital was Belgrade. The policy focused on a strong central government under the control of the Communist Party, and on recognition of the multiple nationalities.
[43]
The flags of the republics used versions of the red flag or
Slavic tricolor
, with a
red star
in the centre or in the canton.
[
citation needed
]
Tito's regional goal was to
expand south
and take control of Albania and parts of Greece. In 1947, negotiations between Yugoslavia and Bulgaria led to the
Bled agreement
, which proposed to form a close relationship between the two Communist countries, and enable Yugoslavia to start a
civil war in Greece
and use Albania and Bulgaria as bases. Stalin vetoed this agreement and it was never realised. The break between Belgrade and Moscow was now imminent.
[44]
Yugoslavia solved the national issue of nations and nationalities (national minorities) in a way that all nations and nationalities had the same rights. However, most of the
German minority
of Yugoslavia, most of whom had collaborated during the occupation and had been recruited to German forces, were expelled towards Germany or Austria.
[45]
Yugoslav?Soviet split and the Non-Alignment Movement
The country distanced itself from the Soviets in 1948 (cf.
Cominform
and
Informbiro
) and started to build its own way to socialism under the political leadership of Josip Broz Tito.
[46]
Accordingly, the constitution was
heavily amended
to replace the emphasis on
democratic centralism
with
workers' self-management
and
decentralization
.
[47]
The Communist Party was renamed to the
League of Communists
and adopted
Titoism
at its
congress the previous year
.
[48]
All the Communist European Countries had deferred to Stalin and rejected the
Marshall Plan
aid in 1947. Tito, at first went along and rejected the Marshall plan. However, in 1948 Tito broke decisively with Stalin on other issues, making Yugoslavia an independent communist state. Yugoslavia requested American aid. American leaders were internally divided, but finally agreed and began sending money on a small scale in 1949, and on a much larger scale 1950?53. The American aid was not part of the Marshall plan.
[49]
Tito criticised both
Eastern Bloc
and
NATO
nations and, together with India and other countries, started the
Non-Aligned Movement
in 1961, which remained the official affiliation of the country until it dissolved.
[
citation needed
]
SFR Yugoslavia
On 7 April 1963, the nation changed its official name to
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
and Josip Broz Tito was named
President for life
.
[50]
In the SFRY, each republic and province had its own constitution, supreme court, parliament, president and prime minister.
[51]
At the top of the Yugoslav government were the President (Tito), the federal Prime Minister, and the federal Parliament (a collective Presidency was formed after Tito's death in 1980).
[51]
[52]
Also important were the
Communist Party
general secretaries for each republic and province, and the general secretary of Central Committee of the Communist Party.
[51]
Tito was the most powerful person in the country, followed by republican and provincial premiers and presidents, and Communist Party presidents. Slobodan Penezi? Krcun, Tito's chief of secret police in Serbia, fell victim to a dubious traffic incident after he started to complain about Tito's politics. Minister of the interior
Aleksandar Rankovi?
lost all of his titles and rights after a major disagreement with Tito regarding state politics. Some influential ministers in government, such as
Edvard Kardelj
or
Stane Dolanc
, were more important than the Prime Minister.
[
citation needed
]
First cracks in the tightly governed system surfaced when
students in Belgrade and several other cities joined
the worldwide
protests of 1968
. President Josip Broz Tito gradually stopped the protests by giving in to some of the students' demands and saying that "students are right" during a televised speech. However, in the following years, he dealt with the leaders of the protests by sacking them from university and Communist party posts.
[53]
A more severe sign of disobedience was so-called
Croatian Spring
of 1970 and 1971, when students in Zagreb organised demonstrations for greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy, followed by mass protests across Croatia.
[54]
[55]
The regime stifled the public protest and incarcerated the leaders, though many key Croatian representatives in the Party silently supported this cause.
[56]
As a result, a new
Constitution
was ratified in 1974, which gave more rights to the individual republics in Yugoslavia and provinces in Serbia.
[54]
[55]
Ethnic tensions and economic crisis
After the
Yugoslav Partisans
took over the country at the end of WWII, nationalism was banned from being publicly promoted. Overall relative peace was retained under Tito's rule, though nationalist protests did occur, but these were usually repressed and nationalist leaders were arrested and some were executed by Yugoslav officials. However, the Croatian Spring protests in the 1970s were backed by large numbers of Croats who complained that Yugoslavia remained a Serb hegemony.
[57]
Tito, whose home republic was Croatia, was concerned over the stability of the country and responded in a manner to appease both Croats and Serbs: he ordered the arrest of the Croatian Spring protestors while at the same time conceding to some of their demands. Following the
1974 Yugoslav Constitution
, Serbia's influence in the country was significantly reduced,
[58]
while its autonomous provinces of
Vojvodina
and
Kosovo
were granted greater autonomy, along with greater rights for the Albanians of Kosovo and Hungarians of Vojvodina.
[59]
Both provinces were afforded much of the same status as the six republics of Yugoslavia, though they could not secede.
[60]
Vojvodina and Kosovo formed the provinces of the
Republic of Serbia
but also formed part of the federation, which led to the unique situation in which
Central Serbia
did not have its own assembly but a joint assembly with its provinces represented in it.
Albanian
and
Hungarian
became nationally recognised minority languages, and the Serbo-Croat of Bosnia and Montenegro altered to a form based on the speech of the local people and not on the standards of Zagreb and Belgrade. In Slovenia the recognized minorities were Hungarians and Italians.
[
citation needed
]
The fact that these autonomous provinces held the same voting power as the republics but unlike other republics could not legally separate from Yugoslavia satisfied Croatia and Slovenia, but in Serbia and in the new autonomous province of Kosovo, reaction was different. Serbs saw the new constitution as conceding to Croat and ethnic Albanian nationalists.
[61]
Ethnic Albanians in Kosovo saw the creation of an autonomous province as not being enough, and demanded that Kosovo become a constituent republic with the right to separate from Yugoslavia. This created tensions within the Communist leadership, particularly among Communist Serb officials who viewed the 1974 constitution as weakening Serbia's influence and jeopardising the unity of the country by allowing the republics the right to separate.
[61]
According to official statistics, from the 1950s to the early 1980s, Yugoslavia was among the fastest growing countries, approaching the ranges reported in South Korea and other countries undergoing an
economic miracle
.
[62]
The unique socialist system in Yugoslavia, where factories were
worker cooperatives
and decision-making was less centralized than in other socialist countries, may have led to the stronger growth. However, even if the absolute value of the growth rates was not as high as indicated by the official statistics, both the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia were characterized by surprisingly high growth rates of both income and education during the 1950s.
[62]
The period of European growth ended after the oil price shock in 1970s. Following that, an economic crisis erupted in Yugoslavia due to disastrous economic policies such as borrowing vast amounts of Western capital to fund growth through exports.
[62]
At the same time, Western economies went into recession, decreasing demand for Yugoslav imports thereby creating a large debt problem.
[
citation needed
]
In 1989, 248 firms were declared bankrupt or were liquidated and 89,400 workers were laid off according to official sources
[
who?
]
. During the first nine months of 1990 and directly following the adoption of the IMF programme, another 889 enterprises with a combined work-force of 525,000 workers suffered the same fate. In other words, in less than two years "the trigger mechanism" (under the Financial Operations Act) had led to the layoff of more than 600,000 workers out of a total industrial workforce of the order of 2.7 million.
[63]
An additional 20% of the work force, or half a million people, were not paid wages during the early months of 1990 as enterprises sought to avoid bankruptcy.
[64]
The largest concentrations of bankrupt firms and lay-offs were in Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Kosovo. Real earnings were in a free fall and social programmes collapsed; creating within the population an atmosphere of social despair and hopelessness.
[64]
This was a critical turning point in the events to follow.
[
citation needed
]
Breakup
After Tito's death on 4 May 1980,
ethnic tensions
grew in Yugoslavia. The legacy of the
Constitution of 1974
threw the system of decision-making into a state of paralysis, made all the more hopeless as the conflict of interests became irreconcilable. The Albanian majority in Kosovo demanded the status of a republic in the
1981 protests in Kosovo
while Serbian authorities suppressed this sentiment and proceeded to reduce the province's autonomy.
[65]
In 1986, the
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
drafted a memorandum addressing some burning issues concerning the position of Serbs as the most numerous people in Yugoslavia. The largest Yugoslav republic in territory and population, Serbia's influence over the regions of Kosovo and Vojvodina was reduced by the 1974 Constitution. Because its two autonomous provinces had de facto prerogatives of full-fledged republics, Serbia found that its hands were tied, for the republican government was restricted in making and carrying out decisions that would apply to the provinces. Since the provinces had a vote in the Federal Presidency Council (an eight-member council composed of representatives from the six republics and the two autonomous provinces), they sometimes even entered into coalitions with other republics, thus outvoting Serbia. Serbia's political impotence made it possible for others to exert pressure on the 2 million Serbs (20% of the total Serbian population) living outside Serbia.
[
citation needed
]
After Tito's death, Serbian communist leader
Slobodan Milo?evi?
began making his way toward the pinnacle of Serbian leadership.
[66]
Milo?evi? sought to restore pre-1974 Serbian sovereignty. Other republics, especially Slovenia and Croatia, denounced his proposal as a revival of
greater Serbian
hegemonism. Through a series of moves known as the "
anti-bureaucratic revolution
", Milo?evi? succeeded in reducing the autonomy of
Vojvodina
and of
Kosovo
and Metohija,
[67]
but both entities retained a vote in the Yugoslav Presidency Council. The very instrument that reduced Serbian influence before was now used to increase it: in the eight-member Council, Serbia could now count on four votes at a minimum: Serbia proper, then-loyal Montenegro, Vojvodina, and Kosovo.
[68]
As a result of these events,
ethnic Albanian
miners in
Kosovo
organised the
1989 Kosovo miners' strike
, which dovetailed into an ethnic conflict between the Albanians and the non-Albanians in the province. At around 80% of the
population of Kosovo in the 1980s
, ethnic-Albanians were the majority. With Milo?evi? gaining control over Kosovo in 1989, the original residency changed drastically leaving only a minimum number of Serbians in the region.
[66]
The number of Serbs in Kosovo was quickly declining for several reasons, among them the ever-increasing ethnic tensions and subsequent emigration from the area.
[69]
[70]
Meanwhile,
Slovenia
, under the presidency of
Milan Ku?an
, and
Croatia
supported the Albanian miners and their struggle for formal recognition. Initial strikes turned into widespread demonstrations demanding a Kosovar republic. This angered Serbia's leadership which proceeded to use police force and later, federal police troops to restore civil order.
[71]
In January 1990, the extraordinary 14th Congress of the
League of Communists of Yugoslavia
was convened, where the Serbian and Slovenian delegations argued over the future of the League of Communists and Yugoslavia. The Serbian delegation, led by Milo?evi?, insisted on a policy of "one person, one vote" which would empower the plurality population, the
Serbs
. In turn, the Slovenian delegation, supported by Croats, sought to reform Yugoslavia by devolving even more power to republics, but were voted down. As a result, the Slovene and Croatian delegations left the Congress and the all-Yugoslav Communist party was dissolved.
[72]
[73]
The constitutional crisis that inevitably followed resulted in a rise of nationalism in all republics: Slovenia and Croatia voiced demands for looser ties within the federation. Following the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, each of the republics held multi-party elections in 1990. Slovenia and Croatia held the elections in April since their communist parties chose to cede power peacefully. Other Yugoslav republics?especially Serbia?were more or less dissatisfied with the democratisation in two of the republics and proposed different sanctions (e.g. Serbian "customs tax" for Slovene products) against the two, but as the year progressed, other republics' communist parties saw the inevitability of the democratisation process. In December, as the last member of the federation, Serbia held parliamentary elections confirming the rule of former communists in the republic.
[
citation needed
]
Slovenia and Croatia elected governments oriented towards greater autonomy of the republics (under
Milan Ku?an
and
Franjo Tuđman
, respectively).
[74]
Serbia and Montenegro elected candidates who favoured Yugoslav unity.
[
citation needed
]
The Croat quest for independence led to large Serb communities within Croatia rebelling and trying to secede from the Croat republic. Serbs in Croatia would not accept the status of a national minority in a sovereign Croatia since they would be demoted from the status of a constituent nation.
[75]
Yugoslav Wars
The war broke out when the new regimes tried to replace Yugoslav civilian and military forces with secessionist forces. When, in August 1990, Croatia attempted to replace police in the Serb-populated Croat Krajina by force, the population first looked for refuge in the Yugoslav Army barracks, while the army remained passive. The civilians then organised armed resistance. These armed conflicts between the Croatian armed forces ("police") and civilians mark the beginning of the Yugoslav war that inflamed the region. Similarly, the attempt to replace Yugoslav frontier police by Slovene police forces provoked regional armed conflicts which ended with a minimal number of victims.
[76]
A similar attempt in Bosnia and Herzegovina led to a war that lasted more than three years (see below). The results of all these conflicts were the almost total emigration of the Serbs from all three regions, the massive displacement of the populations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the establishment of the three new independent states. The separation of Macedonia was peaceful, although the Yugoslav Army occupied the peak of the Stra?a mountain on Macedonian soil.
[
citation needed
]
Serbian uprisings in Croatia began in August 1990 by blocking roads leading from the Dalmatian coast towards the interior almost a year before Croatian leadership made any move towards independence. These uprisings were more or less discreetly backed by the Serb-dominated federal army (JNA). The Serbs in Croatia proclaimed "Serb autonomous areas", which were later united into the
Republic of Serb Krajina
. The federal army tried to disarm the territorial defence forces of Slovenia (the republics had their local defence forces similar to the Home Guard) in 1990 but was not completely successful. Still, Slovenia began to covertly import arms to replenish its armed forces.
[
citation needed
]
Croatia also embarked upon the illegal importation of arms, (following the disarmament of the republics' armed forces by the federal army) mainly from Hungary. These activities were under constant surveillance and produced a
video of a secret meeting
between the Croatian Defence minister Martin ?pegelj and two unidentified men. The video, filmed by the Yugoslav counter-intelligence (
KOS, Kontra-obavje?tajna slu?ba
), showed ?pegel announcing that they were at war with the army and giving instructions about arms smuggling as well as methods of dealing with the Yugoslav Army's officers stationed in Croatian cities. Serbia and JNA used this discovery of Croatian rearmament for propaganda purposes. Guns were also fired from army bases through Croatia. Elsewhere, tensions were running high. In the same month, the Army leaders met with the Presidency of Yugoslavia in an attempt to get them to declare a
state of emergency
which would allow for the army to take control of the country. The army was seen as an arm of the Serbian government by that time so the consequence feared by the other republics was to be total Serbian domination of the union. The representatives of Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Vojvodina voted for the decision, while all other republics, Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, voted against. The tie delayed an escalation of conflicts, but not for long.
[76]
Following the first multi-party election results, in the autumn of 1990, the republics of Slovenia and Croatia proposed transforming Yugoslavia into a loose
confederation
of six republics. By this proposal, republics would have right to self-determination. However
Milo?evi?
rejected all such proposals, arguing that like Slovenes and Croats, the Serbs (having in mind Croatian Serbs) should also have a right to self-determination.
[
citation needed
]
On 9 March 1991, demonstrations were held against Slobodan Milo?evi? in
Belgrade
, but the police and the military were deployed in the streets to restore order, killing two people. In late March 1991, the
Plitvice Lakes incident
was one of the first sparks of open war in Croatia. The
Yugoslav People's Army
(JNA), whose superior officers were mainly of Serbian ethnicity, maintained an impression of being neutral, but as time went on, they became increasingly more involved in state politics.
[
citation needed
]
On 25 June 1991, Slovenia and Croatia became the first republics to declare independence from Yugoslavia. The federal customs officers in Slovenia on the border crossings with Italy, Austria, and Hungary simply changed uniforms since most of them were local Slovenes. The following day (26 June), the Federal Executive Council specifically ordered the army to take control of the "internationally recognized borders", leading to the
Ten-Day War
. As Slovenia and Croatia fought towards independence, the Serbian and Croatian forces indulged in violent and perilous rivalry.
[66]
The
Yugoslav People's Army
forces, based in barracks in Slovenia and Croatia, attempted to carry out the task within the next 48 hours. However, because of misinformation given to the Yugoslav Army conscripts that the Federation was under attack by foreign forces and the fact that the majority of them did not wish to engage in a war on the ground where they served their conscription, the Slovene territorial defence forces retook most of the posts within days with minimal loss of life on both sides.
[
citation needed
]
There was, however, evidence of a suspected war crime. The Austrian
ORF TV network
showed
footage
of three Yugoslav Army soldiers surrendering to the territorial defence force when gunfire was heard and the troops were seen falling down. None were killed in the incident, yet there were numerous cases of destruction of civilian property and civilian life by the Yugoslav People's Army, including houses and a church. A civilian airport, along with a hangar and aircraft inside the hangar, was bombarded; truck drivers on the road from Ljubljana to Zagreb and Austrian journalists at the
Ljubljana Airport
were killed.
[
citation needed
]
A ceasefire was eventually agreed upon. According to the
Brioni Agreement
, recognised by representatives of all republics, the international community pressured Slovenia and Croatia to place a three-month
moratorium
on their independence.
[
citation needed
]
During these three months, the Yugoslav Army completed its pull-out from Slovenia, but in Croatia, a bloody
war
broke out in the autumn of 1991. Ethnic Serbs, who had created their own state
Republic of Serbian Krajina
in heavily Serb-populated regions resisted the police forces of the Republic of Croatia who were trying to bring that breakaway region back under Croatian jurisdiction. In some strategic places, the Yugoslav Army acted as a buffer zone; in most others it was protecting or aiding Serbs with resources and even manpower in their confrontation with the new Croatian army and their police force.
[
citation needed
]
In September 1991, the
Republic of Macedonia
also declared independence, becoming the only former republic to gain sovereignty without resistance from the Belgrade-based Yugoslav authorities. 500 US soldiers were then deployed under the UN banner to monitor Macedonia's northern borders with the Republic of Serbia. Macedonia's first president,
Kiro Gligorov
, maintained good relations with Belgrade and the other breakaway republics and there have to date been no problems between Macedonian and Serbian border police even though small pockets of Kosovo and the
Pre?evo
valley complete the northern reaches of the historical region known as Macedonia (Prohor P?injski part), which would otherwise create a border dispute if ever Macedonian nationalism should resurface (see
Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
). This was despite the fact that the Yugoslav Army refused to abandon its military infrastructure on the top of the Stra?a Mountain up to the year 2000.
[
citation needed
]
As a result of the conflict, the
United Nations Security Council
unanimously adopted
UN Security Council Resolution 721
on 27 November 1991, which paved the way to the establishment of
peacekeeping
operations in Yugoslavia.
[77]
In Bosnia and Herzegovina in November 1991, the Bosnian Serbs held a referendum which resulted in an overwhelming vote in favour of forming a Serbian republic within the borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and staying in a common state with Serbia and Montenegro. On 9 January 1992, the self-proclaimed Bosnian Serb assembly proclaimed a separate "Republic of the Serb people of Bosnia and Herzegovina". The referendum and creation of SARs were proclaimed
unconstitutional
by the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina and declared illegal and invalid. In February?March 1992, the government held a national referendum on Bosnian independence from Yugoslavia. That referendum was in turn declared contrary to the BiH and the Federal constitution by the federal Constitutional Court in Belgrade and the newly established Bosnian Serb government.
[
citation needed
]
The referendum was largely boycotted by the Bosnian Serbs. The Federal court in Belgrade did not decide on the matter of the referendum of the Bosnian Serbs. The turnout was somewhere between 64 and 67% and 98% of the voters voted for independence. It was not clear what the two-thirds majority requirement actually meant and whether it was satisfied. The republic's government declared its independence on 5 April, and the Serbs immediately declared the independence of
Republika Srpska
. The
war in Bosnia
followed shortly thereafter.
[
citation needed
]
Timeline
Various dates are considered the end of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:
- 25 June 1991, when
Croatia
and
Slovenia
declared independence
[78]
- 8 September 1991: following a referendum the
Republic of Macedonia
declared independence which was ratified by the Assembly of Macedonia on 17 September
[79]
- 8 October 1991, when the 9 July moratorium on Slovene and Croatian secession ended and Croatia restated its independence in the Croatian Parliament (that day is officially considered the date of Independence)
[80]
- 6 April 1992: full recognition of
Bosnia and Herzegovina
's independence by the European Union followed by the U.S.
[81]
- 27 April 1992: the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
is formed
[14]
- 14 December 1995: the
Dayton Agreement
is signed by the leaders of FR Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia
[82]
New states
Succession, 1992?2003
Yugoslavia at the time of its dissolution, early 1992
The state of affairs of the territory of the former Yugoslavia, 2008
As the
Yugoslav Wars
raged through Bosnia and Croatia, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, which remained relatively untouched by the war, formed a
rump state
known as the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(FRY) in 1992. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia aspired to be a sole
legal successor
to the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
, but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. The United Nations also
denied its request to automatically continue the membership of the former state
.
[83]
In 2000, Milo?evi? was prosecuted for atrocities committed in his ten-year rule in Serbia and the Yugoslav Wars.
[66]
Eventually, after the
overthrow of Slobodan Milo?evi?
from power as president of the federation in 2000, the country dropped those aspirations, accepted the opinion of the
Badinter Arbitration Committee
about shared succession, and reapplied for and gained UN membership on 2 November 2000.
[10]
From 1992 to 2000, some countries, including the United States, had referred to the FRY as
Serbia and Montenegro
[84]
as they viewed its claim to Yugoslavia's successorship as illegitimate.
[85]
In April 2001, the five successor states extant at the time drafted an
Agreement on Succession Issues of the Former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
.
[86]
[87]
Marking an important transition in its history, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was officially renamed
Serbia and Montenegro
in 2003.
[
citation needed
]
According to the Succession Agreement signed in Vienna on 29 June 2001, all assets of former Yugoslavia were divided between five successor states:
[87]
Succession, 2006?present
In June 2006,
Montenegro
became an independent nation after the results of a
May 2006 referendum
, therefore rendering Serbia and Montenegro no longer existent. After Montenegro's independence, Serbia became the
legal successor
of Serbia and Montenegro, while Montenegro re-applied for membership in international organisations. In February 2008, the
Republic of Kosovo
declared independence from Serbia, leading to an ongoing dispute on whether Kosovo is a legally recognised state. Republic of Kosovo is not a member of the United Nations, but a number of states, including the United States and various members of the
European Union
, have
recognised
Republic of Kosovo as a sovereign state.
[89]
|
Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
Croatia
|
Kosovo
|
Montenegro
|
North Macedonia
|
Serbia
|
Slovenia
|
Flag
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Coat of arms
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Capital
|
Sarajevo
|
Zagreb
|
Pristina
|
Podgorica
|
Skopje
|
Belgrade
|
Ljubljana
|
Independence
|
3 March,
1992
|
25 June,
1991
|
17 February,
2008
|
3 June,
2006
|
8 September,
1991
|
5 June,
2006
|
25 June,
1991
|
Population (2018)
|
3,301,779
|
4,109,669
|
1,886,259
|
622,359
|
2,068,979
|
6,988,221
|
2,086,525
|
Area
|
51,197 km
2
|
56,594 km
2
|
10,908 km
2
|
13,812 km
2
|
25,713 km
2
|
88,361 km
2
|
20,273 km
2
|
Density
|
69/km
2
|
74/km
2
|
159/km
2
|
45/km
2
|
81/km
2
|
91/km
2
|
102/km
2
|
Water area (%)
|
0.02%
|
1.1%
|
1.00%
|
2.61%
|
1.09%
|
0.13%
|
0.6%
|
GDP (nominal) total (2023)
|
$24.531 billion
|
$73.490 billion
|
$9.815 billion
|
$6.674 billion
|
$15.024 billion
|
$68.679 billion
|
$65.202 billion
|
GDP (PPP) per capita (2023)
|
$18,956
|
$40,484
|
$15,398
|
$27,616
|
$21,103
|
$25,718
|
$52,517
|
Gini Index
(2018
[90]
)
|
33.0
|
29.7
|
23.2
|
33.2
|
43.2
|
29.7
|
25.6
|
HDI
(2021)
|
0.780 (
High
)
|
0.858 (
Very High
)
|
0.750 (
High
)
|
0.832 (
Very High
)
|
0.770 (
High
)
|
0.802 (
Very High
)
|
0.918 (
Very High
)
|
Internet
TLD
|
.ba
|
.hr
|
.xk
|
.me
|
.mk
|
.rs
|
.si
|
Calling code
|
+387
|
+385
|
+383
|
+382
|
+389
|
+381
|
+386
|
Yugo-nostalgia
Remembrance of the time of the joint state and its positive attributes is referred to as
Yugo-nostalgia
.
Many aspects of Yugo-nostalgia refer to the socialist system and the sense of social security it provided. There are still people from the former Yugoslavia who self-identify as
Yugoslavs
; this identifier is commonly seen in demographics relating to ethnicity in today's independent states.
[91]
Demographics
| This section
is missing information
about overall statistics on religion, ethnicity, and language.
Please expand the section to include this information. Further details may exist on the
talk page
.
(
April 2022
)
|
Yugoslavia had always been a home to a very diverse population, not only in terms of national affiliation, but also religious affiliation. Of the many religions, Islam, Roman Catholicism, Judaism, and Protestantism, as well as various
Eastern Orthodox
faiths, composed the religions of Yugoslavia, comprising over 40 in all. The religious demographics of Yugoslavia changed dramatically since World War II. A census taken in 1921 and later in 1948 show that 99% of the population appeared to be deeply involved with their religion and practices. With postwar government programs of modernisation and urbanisation, the percentage of religious believers took a dramatic plunge. Connections between religious belief and nationality posed a serious threat to the post-war Communist government's policies on national unity and state structure.
[92]
Although Yugoslavia became a
de facto
atheist state
, in contrast to other
socialist states
of the time, Catholic Church maintained an active role in society of Yugoslavia,
[93]
the
Holy See
normalized its
relations with Yugoslavia
by 1967 and worked together on stopping the
Vietnam War
.
[94]
Likewise, the
Serbian Orthodox Church
received favorable treatment, and Yugoslavia did not engage in anti-religious campaigns to the extent of other countries in the
Eastern Bloc
.
[95]
After the rise of communism, a survey taken in 1964 showed that just over 70% of the total population of Yugoslavia considered themselves to be religious believers. The places of highest religious concentration were that of
Kosovo
with 91% and
Bosnia and Herzegovina
with 83.8%. The places of lowest religious concentration were
Slovenia
65.4%,
Serbia
with 63.7% and
Croatia
with 63.6%. The percentage of self-declared atheists was highest among
Yugoslavs
by nationality at 45%, followed by
Serbs
at 42%.
[96]
Religious differences between Orthodox
Serbs
and
Macedonians
, Catholic
Croats
and
Slovenes
, and Muslim
Bosniaks
and
Albanians
alongside the rise of nationalism contributed to the collapse of Yugoslavia in 1991.
[92]
The
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
had unitary policies, suppressed autonomy and proclaimed the official ideology to be that Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, Macedonians and Slovenes were tribes of one nation of
Yugoslavs
(see
Yugoslavism
), to the heavy disagreement and resistance from Croats and other ethnic groups; this was interpreted as gradual
Serbianization
of Yugoslavia's non-Serb population. The ruling
Communist Party
of the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
was ideologically opposed to ethnic unitarism and royal hegemony, and instead promoted ethnic diversity and social
Yugoslavism
within the notion of "
brotherhood and unity
", while organizing the country as a federation.
[97]
Languages
The three major languages in Yugoslavia were
Serbo-Croatian
,
Slovenian
, and
Macedonian
.
[98]
Serbo-Croatian, the only language taught all across former Yugoslavia, remained the
second language
of many
Slovenes
[99]
and
Macedonians
, especially those born during the time of Yugoslavia. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbo-Croatian has lost its unitary codification and its official unitary status and has since
diverged into four standardized varieties
of what remains one
pluricentric language
:
Bosnian
,
Croatian
,
Montenegrin
and
Serbian
.
[
citation needed
]
See also
Notes
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.
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- ^
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(PDF)
.
publikacije.stat.gov.rs
. Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia Federal Statistical Office.
- ^
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(PDF)
.
publikacije.stat.gov.rs
. Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia Federal Statistical Office.
- ^
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(PDF)
.
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.
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Archived
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a
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"Кра?евски намесници и чланови Народног претставништва положили су ?уче заклетву на верност ?. В. Кралу Петру II"
[Royal deputies and members of the People's Representative Office took the oath of allegiance to King Peter II yesterday].
Време
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The World Transformed 1945 to the Present
. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 522.
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Realm of the Black Mountain: A History of Montenegro
. Cornell University Press. p. 432.
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A Concise History of Serbia
. Cambridge University Press. p. 461.
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Separatism and the State
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Managing Intercollective Conflict: Prevailing Structures and Global Challenges
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Agonistic Mourning: Political Dissidence and the Women in Black
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Peacebuilding in Practice: Local Experience in Two Bosnian Towns
. Cornell University Press.
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Europe from the Balkans to the Urals: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union
. SIPRI. p. 277.
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. Routledge. p. xiv.
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Democratic Statehood in International Law: The Emergence of New States in Post-Cold War Practice
. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 98.
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Good Administration and the Council of Europe: Law, Principles, and Effectiveness
. Oxford University Press. p. 689.
ISBN
978-0-1988-6153-9
.
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Calic, Marie-Janine (2013). Ingrao, Charles W.; Emmert, Thomas Allan (eds.).
Confronting the Yugoslav Controversies: A Scholars' Initiative
. Purdue University Press. p. 124.
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Further reading
- Allcock, John B.
Explaining Yugoslavia
(Columbia University Press, 2000)
- Allcock, John B. et al. eds.
Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia: An Encyclopedia
(1998)
- Bezdrob, Anne Marie du Preez.
Sarajevo Roses: War Memoirs of a Peacekeeper
. Oshun, 2002.
ISBN
1-77007-031-1
- Batakovi?, Du?an T.
, ed. (2005).
Histoire du peuple serbe
[
History of the Serbian People
] (in French). Lausanne: L’Age d’Homme.
ISBN
9782825119587
.
- Chan, Adrian.
Free to Choose: A Teacher's Resource and Activity Guide to Revolution and Reform in Eastern Europe
. Stanford, CA: SPICE, 1991. ED 351 248
- Cigar, Norman.
Genocide in Bosnia: The Policy of Ethnic-Cleansing
. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1995
- Cohen, Lenard J.
Broken Bonds: The Disintegration of Yugoslavia
. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993
- Conversi, Daniele:
German -Bashing and the Breakup of Yugoslavia
, The Donald W. Treadgold Papers in Russian, East European and Central Asian Studies, no. 16, March 1998 (University of Washington: HMJ School of International Studies)
- Djilas, Milovan
.
Land without Justice
, [with] introd. and notes by
William Jovanovich
. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1958.
- Dragnich, Alex N.
Serbs and Croats. The Struggle in Yugoslavia
. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992
- Fisher, Sharon.
Political Change in Post-Communist Slovakia and Croatia: From Nationalist to Europeanist
. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006
ISBN
1-4039-7286-9
- Glenny, Mischa
.
The Balkans: Nationalism, War and the Great Powers, 1804?1999
(London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2000)
- Glenny, Mischa
.
The fall of Yugoslavia: The Third Balkan War
,
ISBN
0-14-026101-X
- Gutman, Roy.
A Witness to Genocide. The 1993 Pulitzer Prize-winning Dispatches on the "Ethnic Cleansing" of Bosnia
. New York: Macmillan, 1993
- Hall, Richard C., ed.
War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia
(2014)
excerpt
- Hall, Brian.
The Impossible Country: A Journey Through the Last Days of Yugoslavia
(Penguin Books. New York, 1994)
- Hayden, Robert M.: Blueprints for a House Divided: The Constitutional Logic of the Yugoslav Conflicts. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000
- Hoare, Marko A.,
A History of Bosnia: From the Middle Ages to the Present Day
. London: Saqi, 2007
- Hornyak, Arpad.
Hungarian-Yugoslav Diplomatic Relations, 1918?1927
(East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press; 2013) 426 pages
- Jelavich, Barbara
:
History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
, Volume 1. New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 1983 ED 236 093
- Jelavich, Barbara
:
History of the Balkans: Twentieth Century
, Volume 2. New York: American Council of Learned Societies, 1983. ED 236 094
- Kohlmann, Evan F.:
Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network
Berg, New York 2004,
ISBN
1-85973-802-8
;
ISBN
1-85973-807-9
- Malesevic, Sinisa: Ideology, Legitimacy and the New State: Yugoslavia, Serbia and Croatia. London: Routledge, 2002.
- Owen, David.
Balkan Odyssey
Harcourt (Harvest Book), 1997
- Pavlowitch, Stevan K.
The improbable survivor: Yugoslavia and its problems, 1918?1988
(1988).
online free to borrow
- Pavlowitch, Stevan K.
Tito?Yugoslavia's great dictator : a reassessment
(1992)
online free to borrow
- Pavlowitch, Steven.
Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia
(2008)
excerpt and text search
- Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006).
The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918?2005
. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
ISBN
978-0-253-34656-8
.
- Roberts, Walter R.
:
Tito, Mihailovic, and the Allies: 1941?1945
. Duke University Press, 1987;
ISBN
0-8223-0773-1
.
- Sacco, Joe:
Safe Area Gorazde: The War in Eastern Bosnia 1992?1995
. Fantagraphics Books, January 2002
- Silber, Laura and Allan Little:
Yugoslavia: Death of a Nation
. New York: Penguin Books, 1997
- "New Power"
at
Time
magazine
(reprinted from 4 December 1944)
- West, Rebecca
:
Black Lamb and Gray Falcon: A Journey Through Yugoslavia
. Viking, 1941
Historiography and memory
- Antolovi, Michael. "Writing History under the 'Dictatorship of the Proletariat': Yugoslav Historiography 1945?1991."
Revista de Historia das Ideias
39 (2021): 49?73.
online
- Banac, Ivo. "Yugoslavia."
American Historical Review
97.4 (1992): 1084?1104.
online
- Banac, Ivo. "The dissolution of Yugoslav historiography." in
Beyond Yugoslavia
(Routledge, 2019) pp. 39?65.
[1]
- Beloff, Nora (1986).
Tito's Flawed Legacy: Yugoslavia and the West Since 1939
. Westview Pr.
ISBN
978-0-8133-0322-2
.
online
- Brunnbauer, Ulf. "Serving the Nation: Historiography in the Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) After Socialism."
Historein
4 (2003): 161?182.
online
- Carter, April (1989).
Marshal Tito: A Bibliography
. Greenwood Press.
ISBN
978-0-313-28087-0
.
- Cicic, Ana. "Yugoslavia Revisited: Contested Histories through Public Memories of President Tito." (2020).
online
- Cosovschi, Agustin. "Seeing and Imagining the Land of Tito: Oscar Waiss and the Geography of Socialist Yugoslavia."
Balkanologie. Revue d'etudes pluridisciplinaires
17.1 (2022).
online
- Dimi?, Ljubodrag. "Historiography on the Cold War in Yugoslavia: from ideology to science."
Cold War History
8.2 (2008): 285?297.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14682740802018835
- Foster, Samuel.
Yugoslavia in the British imagination: Peace, war and peasants before Tito
(Bloomsbury Publishing, 2021)
online
. See also
online book review
- Hoepken, Wolfgang. "War, memory, and education in a fragmented society: The case of Yugoslavia."
East European Politics and Societies
13.1 (1998): 190?227.
online
- Juhasz, Jozsef. "Paradigms and narratives in the historiography on the disintegration of Yugoslavia."
Journal of Contemporary Central and Eastern Europe
(2023): 1?12.
online
- Karge, Heike. "Mediated remembrance: local practices of remembering the Second World War in Tito's Yugoslavia."
European Review of History?Revue europeenne d'histoire
16.1 (2009): 49?62.
[2]
- Kevo, Tomislav. "The Image of Socialist Yugoslavia in Croatian Historiography." (2013).
online
- Perovi?, Jeronim. "The Tito-Stalin split: a reassessment in light of new evidence."
Journal of Cold War Studies
9.2 (2007): 32?63.
online
- Sindbæk, Tea. "The fall and rise of a national hero: interpretations of Dra?a Mihailovi? and the Chetniks in Yugoslavia and Serbia since 1945."
Journal of contemporary European studies
17.1 (2009): 47?59.
online
- Sindbæk, Tea. "World War II genocides in Yugoslav historiography." (2006).
online
[
permanent dead link
]
- Stallaerts, Robert. "Historiography in the Former and New Yugoslavia."
Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis
3 (1999): 4+
online
.
- Tromp, Nevanka. "Ongoing Disintegration of Yugoslavia: historiography of the conflict that won't go away."
Leidschrift 36.november: 30 jaar postcommunisme. Op zoek naar een nieuw evenwicht
(2021): 31?48.
[3]
[
permanent dead link
]
- Tro?t, Tamara P. "The image of Josip Broz Tito in post-Yugoslavia: Between national and local memory." in
Ruler Personality Cults from Empires to Nation-States and Beyond
(Routledge, 2020) pp. 143?162.
online
External links
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