Linked hypertext system on the Internet
This article is about the global system of pages accessed via HTTP. For the worldwide computer network, see
Internet
. For the web browser, see
WorldWideWeb
.
World Wide Web
The historic World Wide Web logo, designed by
Robert Cailliau
. Currently, there is no widely accepted logo in use for the WWW.
|
Year started
| 1989
; 35 years ago
(
1989
)
by
Tim Berners-Lee
|
---|
Organization
| CERN
|
---|
The
World Wide Web
(
WWW
or simply the
Web
) is an
information system
that enables
content
sharing over the
Internet
through user-friendly ways meant to appeal to users beyond
IT
specialists and hobbyists.
[1]
It allows documents and other
web resources
to be accessed over the Internet according to specific rules of the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).
[2]
The Web was invented by English computer scientist
Tim Berners-Lee
while at
CERN
in 1989 and opened to the public in 1991. It was conceived as a "universal linked information system".
[3]
[4]
Documents and other media content are made available to the network through
web servers
and can be accessed by programs such as
web browsers
. Servers and resources on the World Wide Web are identified and located through character strings called
uniform resource locators
(URLs).
The original and still very common document type is a
web page
formatted in
Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML). This markup language supports
plain text
,
images
, embedded
video
and
audio
contents, and
scripts
(short programs) that implement complex user interaction. The HTML language also supports
hyperlinks
(embedded URLs) which provide immediate access to other web resources.
Web navigation
, or web surfing, is the common practice of following such hyperlinks across multiple websites.
Web applications
are web pages that function as
application software
. The information in the Web is transferred across the Internet using HTTP. Multiple web resources with a common theme and usually a common
domain name
make up a
website
. A single web server may provide multiple websites, while some websites, especially the most popular ones, may be provided by multiple servers. Website content is provided by a myriad of companies, organizations, government agencies, and
individual users
; and comprises an enormous amount of educational, entertainment, commercial, and government information.
The Web has become the world's dominant
information systems platform
.
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
It is the primary tool that billions of people worldwide use to interact with the Internet.
[2]
History
The Web was invented by English computer scientist
Tim Berners-Lee
while working at
CERN
.
[9]
[10]
He was motivated by the problem of storing, updating, and finding documents and data files in that large and constantly changing organization, as well as distributing them to collaborators outside CERN. In his design, Berners-Lee dismissed the common
tree structure
approach, used for instance in the existing
CERNDOC
documentation system and in the
Unix filesystem
, as well as approaches that relied in tagging files with
keywords
, as in the
VAX/NOTES
system. Instead he adopted concepts he had put into practice with his private
ENQUIRE
system (1980) built at CERN. When he became aware of
Ted Nelson
's
hypertext
model (1965), in which documents can be linked in unconstrained ways through
hyperlinks
associated with "hot spots" embedded in the text, it helped to confirm the validity of his concept.
[11]
[12]
The model was later popularized by
Apple
's
HyperCard
system. Unlike Hypercard, Berners-Lee's new system from the outset was meant to support links between multiple databases on independent computers, and to allow simultaneous access by many users from any computer on the Internet. He also specified that the system should eventually handle other media besides text, such as graphics, speech, and video. Links could refer to mutable data files, or even fire up programs on their server computer. He also conceived "gateways" that would allow access through the new system to documents organized in other ways (such as traditional computer
file systems
or the
Uucp News
). Finally, he insisted that the system should be decentralized, without any central control or coordination over the creation of links.
[3]
[13]
[9]
[10]
Berners-Lee submitted a proposal to CERN in May 1989, without giving the system a name.
[3]
He got a working system implemented by the end of 1990, including a browser called
WorldWideWeb
(which became the name of the project and of the network) and
an HTTP server
running at CERN. As part of that development he defined the first version of the HTTP protocol, the basic URL syntax, and implicitly made HTML the primary document format.
[14]
The technology was released outside CERN to other research institutions starting in January 1991, and then to the whole Internet on 23 August 1991. The Web was a success at CERN, and began to spread to other scientific and academic institutions. Within the next two years,
there were 50 websites created
.
[15]
[16]
CERN made the Web protocol and code available royalty free in 1993, enabling its widespread use.
[17]
[18]
After the
NCSA
released the
Mosaic web browser
later that year, the Web's popularity grew rapidly as
thousands of websites
sprang up in less than a year.
[19]
[20]
Mosaic was a graphical browser that could display inline images and submit
forms
that were processed by the
HTTPd server
.
[21]
[22]
Marc Andreessen
and
Jim Clark
founded
Netscape
the following year and released the
Navigator browser
, which introduced
Java
and
JavaScript
to the Web. It quickly became the dominant browser. Netscape
became a public company
in 1995 which triggered a frenzy for the Web and started the
dot-com bubble
.
[23]
Microsoft responded by developing its own browser,
Internet Explorer
, starting the
browser wars
. By bundling it with Windows, it became the dominant browser for 14 years.
[24]
Berners-Lee founded the
World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) which created
XML
in 1996 and recommended replacing HTML with stricter
XHTML
.
[25]
In the meantime, developers began exploiting an IE feature called
XMLHttpRequest
to make
Ajax
applications and launched the
Web 2.0
revolution.
Mozilla
,
Opera
, and Apple rejected XHTML and created the
WHATWG
which developed
HTML5
.
[26]
In 2009, the W3C conceded and abandoned XHTML.
[27]
In 2019, it ceded control of the HTML specification to the WHATWG.
[28]
The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the
Information Age
and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the
Internet
.
[29]
[30]
[31]
[8]
Nomenclature
Tim Berners-Lee states that
World Wide Web
is officially spelled as three separate words, each capitalised, with no intervening hyphens.
[32]
Nonetheless, it is often called simply
the Web
, and also often
the web
; see
Capitalization of
Internet
for details. In Mandarin Chinese,
World Wide Web
is commonly translated via a
phono-semantic matching
to
wan wei w?ng
(
万??
), which satisfies
www
and literally means "10,000-dimensional net", a translation that reflects the design concept and proliferation of the World Wide Web.
Use of the www prefix has been declining, especially when
web applications
sought to brand their domain names and make them easily pronounceable. As the
mobile Web
grew in popularity,
[
citation needed
]
services like
Gmail
.com,
Outlook.com
,
Myspace
.com,
Facebook
.com and
Twitter
.com are most often mentioned without adding "www." (or, indeed, ".com") to the domain.
[33]
In English,
www
is usually read as
double-u double-u double-u
.
[34]
Some users pronounce it
dub-dub-dub
, particularly in New Zealand.
[35]
Stephen Fry, in his "Podgrams" series of podcasts, pronounces it
wuh wuh wuh
.
[36]
The English writer
Douglas Adams
once quipped in
The Independent
on Sunday
(1999): "The World Wide Web is the only thing I know of whose shortened form takes three times longer to say than what it's short for".
[37]
Function
The terms
Internet
and
World Wide Web
are often used without much distinction. However, the two terms do not mean the same thing. The Internet is a global system of
computer networks
interconnected through telecommunications and
optical networking
. In contrast, the World Wide Web is a global collection of documents and other
resources
, linked by hyperlinks and
URIs
. Web resources are accessed using
HTTP
or
HTTPS
, which are application-level Internet protocols that use the Internet's transport protocols.
[2]
Viewing a
web page
on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the
URL
of the page into a web browser or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of background communication messages to fetch and display the requested page. In the 1990s, using a browser to view web pages?and to move from one web page to another through hyperlinks?came to be known as 'browsing,' 'web surfing' (after
channel surfing
), or 'navigating the Web'. Early studies of this new behaviour investigated user patterns in using web browsers. One study, for example, found five user patterns: exploratory surfing, window surfing, evolved surfing, bounded navigation and targeted navigation.
[38]
The following example demonstrates the functioning of a web browser when accessing a page at the URL
http://example.org/home.html
. The browser resolves the server name of the URL (
example.org
) into an
Internet Protocol address
using the globally distributed
Domain Name System
(DNS). This lookup returns an IP address such as
203.0.113.4
or
2001:db8:2e::7334
. The browser then requests the resource by sending an
HTTP
request across the Internet to the computer at that address. It requests service from a specific TCP port number that is well known for the HTTP service so that the receiving host can distinguish an HTTP request from other network protocols it may be servicing. HTTP normally uses
port number 80
and for HTTPS it normally uses
port number 443
. The content of the HTTP request can be as simple as two lines of text:
GET
/home.html
HTTP
/
1.1
Host
:
example.org
The computer receiving the HTTP request delivers it to web server software listening for requests on port 80. If the webserver can fulfil the request it sends an HTTP response back to the browser indicating success:
HTTP
/
1.1
200
OK
Content-Type
:
text/html; charset=UTF-8
followed by the content of the requested page. Hypertext Markup Language (
HTML
) for a basic web page might look like this:
<
html
>
<
head
>
<
title
>
Example.org ? The World Wide Web
</
title
>
</
head
>
<
body
>
<
p
>
The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known ...
</
p
>
</
body
>
</
html
>
The web browser
parses
the HTML and interprets the markup (
<
title
>
,
<
p
>
for paragraph, and such) that surrounds the words to format the text on the screen. Many web pages use HTML to reference the URLs of other resources such as images, other embedded media,
scripts
that affect page behaviour, and
Cascading Style Sheets
that affect page layout. The browser makes additional HTTP requests to the web server for these other
Internet media types
. As it receives their content from the web server, the browser progressively
renders
the page onto the screen as specified by its HTML and these additional resources.
HTML
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard
markup language
for creating
web pages
and
web applications
. With
Cascading Style Sheets
(CSS) and
JavaScript
, it forms a triad of
cornerstone
technologies for the World Wide Web.
[39]
Web browsers
receive HTML documents from a
web server
or from local storage and
render
the documents into multimedia web pages. HTML describes the structure of a web page
semantically
and originally included cues for the appearance of the document.
HTML elements
are the building blocks of HTML pages. With HTML constructs,
images
and other objects such as
interactive forms
may be embedded into the rendered page. HTML provides a means to create
structured documents
by denoting structural
semantics
for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists,
links
, quotes and other items. HTML elements are delineated by
tags
, written using
angle brackets
. Tags such as
<
img
/>
and
<
input
/>
directly introduce content into the page. Other tags such as
<
p
>
surround and provide information about document text and may include other tags as sub-elements. Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to interpret the content of the page.
HTML can embed programs written in a
scripting language
such as
JavaScript
, which affects the behaviour and content of web pages. Inclusion of CSS defines the look and layout of content. The
World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C), maintainer of both the HTML and the CSS standards, has encouraged the use of CSS over explicit presentational HTML since 1997.
[update]
[40]
Linking
Most web pages contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps to downloadable files, source documents, definitions and other web resources. In the underlying HTML, a hyperlink looks like this:
<
a
href
=
"http://example.org/home.html"
>
Example.org Homepage
</
a
>
.
Such a collection of useful, related resources, interconnected via hypertext links is dubbed a
web
of information. Publication on the Internet created what Tim Berners-Lee first called the
WorldWideWeb
(in its original
CamelCase
, which was subsequently discarded) in November 1990.
[41]
The hyperlink structure of the web is described by the
webgraph
: the nodes of the web graph correspond to the web pages (or URLs) the directed edges between them to the hyperlinks. Over time, many web resources pointed to by hyperlinks disappear, relocate, or are replaced with different content. This makes hyperlinks obsolete, a phenomenon referred to in some circles as link rot, and the hyperlinks affected by it are often called
"dead" links
. The ephemeral nature of the Web has prompted many efforts to archive websites. The
Internet Archive
, active since 1996, is the best known of such efforts.
WWW prefix
Many hostnames used for the World Wide Web begin with
www
because of the long-standing practice of naming
Internet
hosts according to the services they provide. The
hostname
of a
web server
is often
www
, in the same way that it may be
ftp
for an
FTP server
, and
news
or
nntp
for a
Usenet
news server
. These hostnames appear as Domain Name System (DNS) or
subdomain
names, as in
www.example.com
. The use of
www
is not required by any technical or policy standard and many web sites do not use it; the first web server was
nxoc01.cern.ch
.
[42]
According to Paolo Palazzi, who worked at CERN along with Tim Berners-Lee, the popular use of
www
as subdomain was accidental; the World Wide Web project page was intended to be published at www.cern.ch while info.cern.ch was intended to be the CERN home page; however the DNS records were never switched, and the practice of prepending
www
to an institution's website domain name was subsequently copied.
[43]
[
better source needed
]
Many established websites still use the prefix, or they employ other subdomain names such as
www2
,
secure
or
en
for special purposes. Many such web servers are set up so that both the main domain name (e.g., example.com) and the
www
subdomain (e.g., www.example.com) refer to the same site; others require one form or the other, or they may map to different web sites. The use of a subdomain name is useful for
load balancing
incoming web traffic by creating a
CNAME record
that points to a cluster of web servers. Since, currently
[
as of?
]
, only a subdomain can be used in a CNAME, the same result cannot be achieved by using the bare domain root.
[44]
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
When a user submits an incomplete domain name to a web browser in its address bar input field, some web browsers automatically try adding the prefix "www" to the beginning of it and possibly ".com", ".org" and ".net" at the end, depending on what might be missing. For example, entering "microsoft" may be transformed to
http://www.microsoft.com/
and "openoffice" to
http://www.openoffice.org
. This feature started appearing in early versions of
Firefox
, when it still had the working title 'Firebird' in early 2003, from an earlier practice in browsers such as
Lynx
.
[45]
[
unreliable source?
]
It is reported that Microsoft was granted a US patent for the same idea in 2008, but only for mobile devices.
[46]
Scheme specifiers
The scheme specifiers
http://
and
https://
at the start of a web
URI
refer to
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
or
HTTP Secure
, respectively. They specify the communication protocol to use for the request and response. The HTTP protocol is fundamental to the operation of the World Wide Web, and the added encryption layer in HTTPS is essential when browsers send or retrieve confidential data, such as passwords or banking information. Web browsers usually automatically prepend http:// to user-entered URIs, if omitted.
Pages
A
web page
(also written as
webpage
) is a document that is suitable for the World Wide Web and
web browsers
. A web browser displays a web page on a
monitor
or
mobile device
.
The term
web page
usually refers to what is visible, but may also refer to the contents of the
computer file
itself, which is usually a
text file
containing
hypertext
written in
HTML
or a comparable
markup language
. Typical web pages provide
hypertext
for browsing to other web pages via
hyperlinks
, often referred to as
links
. Web browsers will frequently have to access multiple
web resource
elements, such as reading
style sheets
,
scripts
, and images, while presenting each web page.
On a network, a web browser can retrieve a web page from a remote
web server
. The web server may restrict access to a private network such as a corporate intranet. The web browser uses the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) to make such requests to the
web server
.
A
static
web page
is delivered exactly as stored, as
web content
in the web server's
file system
. In contrast, a
dynamic
web page
is generated by a
web application
, usually driven by
server-side software
. Dynamic web pages are used when each user may require completely different information, for example, bank websites, web email etc.
Static page
A
static web page
(sometimes called a
flat page/stationary page
) is a
web page
that is delivered to the user exactly as stored, in contrast to
dynamic web pages
which are generated by a
web application
.
Consequently, a static web page displays the same information for all users, from all contexts, subject to modern capabilities of a
web server
to
negotiate
content-type
or language of the document where such versions are available and the server is configured to do so.
Dynamic pages
A
server-side dynamic web page
is a
web page
whose construction is controlled by an
application server
processing server-side scripts. In server-side scripting,
parameters
determine how the assembly of every new web page proceeds, including the setting up of more client-side processing.
A
client-side dynamic web page
processes the web page using JavaScript running in the browser. JavaScript programs can interact with the document via
Document Object Model
, or DOM, to query page state and alter it. The same client-side techniques can then dynamically update or change the DOM in the same way.
A dynamic web page is then reloaded by the user or by a
computer program
to change some variable content. The updating information could come from the server, or from changes made to that page's DOM. This may or may not truncate the browsing history or create a saved version to go back to, but a
dynamic web page update
using
Ajax
technologies will neither create a page to go back to nor truncate the
web browsing history
forward of the displayed page. Using Ajax technologies the end
user
gets
one dynamic page
managed as a single page in the
web browser
while the actual
web content
rendered on that page can vary. The Ajax engine sits only on the browser requesting parts of its DOM,
the
DOM, for its client, from an application server.
Dynamic HTML, or DHTML, is the umbrella term for technologies and methods used to create web pages that are not
static web pages
, though it has fallen out of common use since the popularization of
AJAX
, a term which is now itself rarely used.
[
citation needed
]
Client-side-scripting, server-side scripting, or a combination of these make for the dynamic web experience in a browser.
JavaScript
is a
scripting language
that was initially developed in 1995 by
Brendan Eich
, then of
Netscape
, for use within web pages.
[47]
The standardised version is
ECMAScript
.
[47]
To make web pages more interactive, some web applications also use JavaScript techniques such as
Ajax
(
asynchronous
JavaScript and
XML
).
Client-side script
is delivered with the page that can make additional HTTP requests to the server, either in response to user actions such as mouse movements or clicks, or based on elapsed time. The server's responses are used to modify the current page rather than creating a new page with each response, so the server needs only to provide limited, incremental information. Multiple Ajax requests can be handled at the same time, and users can interact with the page while data is retrieved. Web pages may also regularly
poll
the server to check whether new information is available.
[48]
Website
A
website
[49]
is a collection of related web resources including
web pages
,
multimedia
content, typically identified with a common
domain name
, and published on at least one
web server
. Notable examples are
wikipedia
.org,
google
.com, and
amazon.com
.
A website may be accessible via a public
Internet Protocol
(IP) network, such as the
Internet
, or a private
local area network
(LAN), by referencing a
uniform resource locator
(URL) that identifies the site.
Websites can have many functions and can be used in various fashions; a website can be a
personal website
, a corporate website for a company, a government website, an organization website, etc. Websites are typically dedicated to a particular topic or purpose, ranging from entertainment and
social networking
to providing news and education. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web, while private websites, such as a company's website for its employees, are typically a part of an
intranet
.
Web pages, which are the building blocks of websites, are
documents
, typically composed in
plain text
interspersed with
formatting instructions
of Hypertext Markup Language (
HTML
,
XHTML
). They may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable
markup anchors
. Web pages are accessed and transported with the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP), which may optionally employ encryption (
HTTP Secure
, HTTPS) to provide security and privacy for the user. The user's application, often a
web browser
, renders the page content according to its HTML markup instructions onto a
display terminal
.
Hyperlinking
between web pages conveys to the reader the
site structure
and guides the navigation of the site, which often starts with a
home page
containing a directory of the site
web content
. Some websites require user registration or
subscription
to access content. Examples of
subscription websites
include many business sites, news websites,
academic journal
websites, gaming websites, file-sharing websites,
message boards
, web-based
email
,
social networking
websites, websites providing real-time price quotations for different types of markets, as well as sites providing various other services.
End users
can access websites on a range of devices, including
desktop
and
laptop computers
,
tablet computers
,
smartphones
and
smart TVs
.
Browser
A
web browser
(commonly referred to as a
browser
) is a
software
user agent
for accessing information on the World Wide Web. To connect to a website's
server
and display its pages, a user needs to have a web browser program. This is the program that the user runs to download, format, and display a web page on the user's computer.
In addition to allowing users to find, display, and move between web pages, a web browser will usually have features like keeping bookmarks, recording history, managing cookies (see below), and home pages and may have facilities for recording passwords for logging into web sites.
The most popular browsers are
Chrome
,
Firefox
,
Safari
,
Internet Explorer
, and
Edge
.
Server
A
Web server
is
server software
, or hardware dedicated to running said software, that can satisfy World Wide Web client requests. A web server can, in general, contain one or more websites. A web server processes incoming network requests over
HTTP
and several other related protocols.
The primary function of a web server is to store, process and deliver
web pages
to
clients
.
[50]
The communication between client and server takes place using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
. Pages delivered are most frequently
HTML documents
, which may include
images
,
style sheets
and
scripts
in addition to the text content.
A
user agent
, commonly a
web browser
or
web crawler
, initiates communication by making a
request
for a specific resource using HTTP and the server responds with the content of that resource or an
error message
if unable to do so. The resource is typically a real file on the server's
secondary storage
, but this is not necessarily the case and depends on how the webserver is
implemented
.
While the primary function is to serve content, full implementation of HTTP also includes ways of receiving content from clients. This feature is used for submitting
web forms
, including
uploading
of files.
Many generic web servers also support
server-side scripting
using
Active Server Pages
(ASP),
PHP
(Hypertext Preprocessor), or other
scripting languages
. This means that the behaviour of the webserver can be scripted in separate files, while the actual server software remains unchanged. Usually, this function is used to generate HTML documents
dynamically
("on-the-fly") as opposed to returning
static documents
. The former is primarily used for retrieving or modifying information from
databases
. The latter is typically much faster and more easily
cached
but cannot deliver
dynamic content
.
Web servers can also frequently be found
embedded
in devices such as
printers
,
routers
,
webcams
and serving only a
local network
. The web server may then be used as a part of a system for monitoring or administering the device in question. This usually means that no additional software has to be installed on the client computer since only a web browser is required (which now is included with most
operating systems
).
Cookie
An
HTTP cookie
(also called
web cookie
,
Internet cookie
,
browser cookie
, or simply
cookie
) is a small piece of data sent from a website and stored on the user's computer by the user's
web browser
while the user is browsing. Cookies were designed to be a reliable mechanism for websites to remember
stateful
information (such as items added in the shopping cart in an online store) or to record the user's browsing activity (including clicking particular buttons,
logging in
, or recording which pages were visited in the past). They can also be used to remember arbitrary pieces of information that the user previously entered into form fields such as names, addresses, passwords, and credit card numbers.
Cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. Perhaps most importantly,
authentication cookies
are the most common method used by web servers to know whether the user is logged in or not, and which account they are logged in with. Without such a mechanism, the site would not know whether to send a page containing sensitive information or require the user to authenticate themselves by logging in. The security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the security of the issuing website and the user's
web browser
, and on whether the cookie data is encrypted. Security vulnerabilities may allow a cookie's data to be read by a
hacker
, used to gain access to user data, or used to gain access (with the user's credentials) to the website to which the cookie belongs (see
cross-site scripting
and
cross-site request forgery
for examples).
[51]
Tracking cookies, and especially
third-party tracking cookies
, are commonly used as ways to compile long-term records of individuals' browsing histories ? a potential
privacy concern
that prompted European
[52]
and U.S. lawmakers to take action in 2011.
[53]
[54]
European law requires that all websites targeting
European Union
member states gain "informed consent" from users before storing non-essential cookies on their device.
Google
Project Zero
researcher Jann Horn describes ways cookies can be read by
intermediaries
, like
Wi-Fi
hotspot providers. When in such circumstances, he recommends using the browser in
private browsing
mode (widely known as
Incognito mode
in Google Chrome).
[55]
Search engine
A
web search engine
or
Internet search engine
is a
software system
that is designed to carry out
web search
(
Internet search
), which means to search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular information specified in a
web search query
. The search results are generally presented in a line of results, often referred to as
search engine results pages
(SERPs). The information may be a mix of
web pages
, images, videos, infographics, articles, research papers, and other types of files. Some search engines also
mine data
available in
databases
or
open directories
. Unlike
web directories
, which are maintained only by human editors, search engines also maintain
real-time
information by running an
algorithm
on a
web crawler
. Internet content that is not capable of being searched by a web search engine is generally described as the
deep web
.
Deep web
The deep web,
[56]
invisible web
,
[57]
or
hidden web
[58]
are parts of the World Wide Web whose contents are not
indexed
by standard
web search engines
. The opposite term to the deep web is the
surface web
, which is accessible to anyone using the Internet.
[59]
Computer scientist
Michael K. Bergman is credited with coining the term
deep web
in 2001 as a search indexing term.
[60]
The content of the deep web is hidden behind
HTTP
forms,
[61]
[62]
and includes many very common uses such as
web mail
,
online banking
, and services that users must pay for, and which is protected by a
paywall
, such as
video on demand
, some online magazines and newspapers, among others.
The content of the deep web can be located and accessed by a direct
URL
or
IP address
and may require a password or other security access past the public website page.
Caching
A
web cache
is a server computer located either on the public Internet or within an enterprise that stores recently accessed web pages to improve response time for users when the same content is requested within a certain time after the original request. Most web browsers also implement a
browser cache
by writing recently obtained data to a local data storage device. HTTP requests by a browser may ask only for data that has changed since the last access. Web pages and resources may contain expiration information to control caching to secure sensitive data, such as in
online banking
, or to facilitate frequently updated sites, such as news media. Even sites with highly dynamic content may permit basic resources to be refreshed only occasionally. Web site designers find it worthwhile to collate resources such as CSS data and JavaScript into a few site-wide files so that they can be cached efficiently. Enterprise
firewalls
often cache Web resources requested by one user for the benefit of many users. Some
search engines
store cached content of frequently accessed websites.
Security
For
criminals
, the Web has become a venue to spread
malware
and engage in a range of
cybercrimes
, including (but not limited to)
identity theft
,
fraud
,
espionage
and
intelligence gathering
.
[63]
Web-based
vulnerabilities
now outnumber traditional computer security concerns,
[64]
[65]
and as measured by
Google
, about one in ten web pages may contain malicious code.
[66]
Most web-based
attacks
take place on legitimate websites, and most, as measured by
Sophos
, are hosted in the United States, China and Russia.
[67]
The most common of all malware
threats
is
SQL injection
attacks against websites.
[68]
Through HTML and URIs, the Web was vulnerable to attacks like
cross-site scripting
(XSS) that came with the introduction of JavaScript
[69]
and were exacerbated to some degree by
Web 2.0
and Ajax
web design
that favours the use of scripts.
[70]
Today
[
as of?
]
by one estimate, 70% of all websites are open to XSS attacks on their users.
[71]
Phishing
is another common threat to the Web. In February 2013, RSA (the security division of EMC) estimated the global losses from phishing at $1.5 billion in 2012.
[72]
Two of the well-known phishing methods are Covert Redirect and Open Redirect.
Proposed solutions vary. Large security companies like
McAfee
already design governance and compliance suites to meet post-9/11 regulations,
[73]
and some, like
Finjan
have recommended active real-time inspection of programming code and all content regardless of its source.
[63]
Some have argued that for enterprises to see Web security as a business opportunity rather than a
cost centre
,
[74]
while others call for "ubiquitous, always-on
digital rights management
" enforced in the infrastructure to replace the hundreds of companies that secure data and networks.
[75]
Jonathan Zittrain
has said users sharing responsibility for computing safety is far preferable to locking down the Internet.
[76]
Privacy
Every time a client requests a web page, the server can identify the request's
IP address
. Web servers usually log IP addresses in a
log file
. Also, unless set not to do so, most web browsers record requested web pages in a viewable
history
feature, and usually
cache
much of the content locally. Unless the server-browser communication uses HTTPS encryption, web requests and responses travel in plain text across the Internet and can be viewed, recorded, and cached by intermediate systems. Another way to hide
personally identifiable information
is by using a
virtual private network
. A VPN
encrypts
online traffic and masks the original IP address lowering the chance of user identification.
When a web page asks for, and the user supplies, personally identifiable information?such as their real name, address, e-mail address, etc. web-based entities can associate current web traffic with that individual. If the website uses
HTTP cookies
, username, and password authentication, or other tracking techniques, it can relate other web visits, before and after, to the identifiable information provided. In this way, a web-based organization can develop and build a profile of the individual people who use its site or sites. It may be able to build a record for an individual that includes information about their leisure activities, their shopping interests, their profession, and other aspects of their
demographic profile
. These profiles are of potential interest to marketers, advertisers, and others. Depending on the website's
terms and conditions
and the local laws that apply information from these profiles may be sold, shared, or passed to other organizations without the user being informed. For many ordinary people, this means little more than some unexpected e-mails in their in-box or some uncannily relevant advertising on a future web page. For others, it can mean that time spent indulging an unusual interest can result in a deluge of further targeted marketing that may be unwelcome. Law enforcement, counterterrorism, and espionage agencies can also identify, target, and track individuals based on their interests or proclivities on the Web.
Social networking
sites usually try to get users to use their real names, interests, and locations, rather than pseudonyms, as their executives believe that this makes the social networking experience more engaging for users. On the other hand, uploaded photographs or unguarded statements can be identified to an individual, who may regret this exposure. Employers, schools, parents, and other relatives may be influenced by aspects of social networking profiles, such as text posts or digital photos, that the posting individual did not intend for these audiences.
Online bullies
may make use of personal information to harass or
stalk
users. Modern social networking websites allow fine-grained control of the privacy settings for each posting, but these can be complex and not easy to find or use, especially for beginners.
[77]
Photographs and videos posted onto websites have caused particular problems, as they can add a person's face to an online profile. With modern and potential
facial recognition technology
, it may then be possible to relate that face with other, previously anonymous, images, events, and scenarios that have been imaged elsewhere. Due to image caching, mirroring, and copying, it is difficult to remove an image from the World Wide Web.
Standards
Web standards include many interdependent standards and specifications, some of which govern aspects of the
Internet
, not just the World Wide Web. Even when not web-focused, such standards directly or indirectly affect the development and administration of websites and
web services
. Considerations include the
interoperability
,
accessibility
and
usability
of web pages and web sites.
Web standards, in the broader sense, consist of the following:
Web standards are not fixed sets of rules but are constantly evolving sets of finalized technical specifications of web technologies.
[84]
Web standards are developed by
standards organizations
?groups of interested and often competing parties chartered with the task of standardization?not technologies developed and declared to be a standard by a single individual or company. It is crucial to distinguish those specifications that are under development from the ones that already reached the final development status (in the case of
W3C
specifications, the highest maturity level).
Accessibility
There are methods for accessing the Web in alternative mediums and formats to facilitate use by individuals with
disabilities
. These disabilities may be visual, auditory, physical, speech-related, cognitive, neurological, or some combination. Accessibility features also help people with temporary disabilities, like a broken arm, or ageing users as their abilities change.
[85]
The Web is receiving information as well as providing information and interacting with society. The World Wide Web Consortium claims that it is essential that the Web be accessible, so it can provide equal access and
equal opportunity
to people with disabilities.
[86]
Tim Berners-Lee once noted, "The power of the Web is in its universality. Access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect."
[85]
Many countries regulate web accessibility as a requirement for websites.
[87]
International co-operation in the W3C
Web Accessibility Initiative
led to simple guidelines that web content authors as well as software developers can use to make the Web accessible to persons who may or may not be using
assistive technology
.
[85]
[88]
Internationalisation
The W3C
Internationalisation
Activity assures that web technology works in all languages, scripts, and cultures.
[89]
Beginning in 2004 or 2005,
Unicode
gained ground and eventually in December 2007 surpassed both
ASCII
and Western European as the Web's most frequently used
character encoding
.
[90]
Originally
RFC
3986
allowed resources to be identified by
URI
in a subset of US-ASCII.
RFC
3987
allows more characters?any character in the
Universal Character Set
?and now a resource can be identified by
IRI
in any language.
[91]
See also
References
- ^
Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006).
The Desk Encyclopedia of World History
. New York:
Oxford University Press
. p. 312.
ISBN
978-0-7394-7809-7
.
- ^
a
b
c
"What is the difference between the Web and the Internet?"
.
W3C Help and FAQ
.
W3C
. 2009.
Archived
from the original on 9 July 2015
. Retrieved
16 July
2015
.
- ^
a
b
c
Berners-Lee, Tim.
"Information Management: A Proposal"
.
w3.org
. The World Wide Web Consortium.
Archived
from the original on 1 April 2010
. Retrieved
12 February
2022
.
- ^
"The World's First Web Site"
.
HISTORY
. 30 August 2018.
Archived
from the original on 19 August 2023
. Retrieved
19 August
2023
.
- ^
Bleigh, Michael (16 May 2014).
"The Once And Future Web Platform"
. TechCrunch.
Archived
from the original on 5 December 2021
. Retrieved
9 March
2022
.
- ^
"
World Wide Web Timeline
"
. Pews Research Center. 11 March 2014.
Archived
from the original on 29 July 2015
. Retrieved
1 August
2015
.
- ^
Dewey, Caitlin (12 March 2014).
"
36 Ways The Web Has Changed Us
"
.
The Washington Post
.
Archived
from the original on 9 September 2015
. Retrieved
1 August
2015
.
- ^
a
b
"Internet Live Stats"
.
internetlivestats.com
.
Archived
from the original on 2 July 2015
. Retrieved
1 August
2015
.
- ^
a
b
Quittner, Joshua (29 March 1999).
"Network Designer Tim Berners-Lee"
.
Time Magazine
. Archived from
the original
on 15 August 2007
. Retrieved
17 May
2010
.
He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He set it loose it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it an open, non-proprietary and free.
[
page needed
]
- ^
a
b
McPherson, Stephanie Sammartino (2009).
Tim Berners-Lee: Inventor of the World Wide Web
. Twenty-First Century Books.
ISBN
978-0-8225-7273-2
.
- ^
Rutter, Dorian (2005).
From Diversity to Convergence: British Computer Networks and the Internet, 1970-1995
(PDF)
(Computer Science thesis). The University of Warwick.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 10 October 2022
. Retrieved
27 December
2022
.
- ^
Tim Berners-Lee (1999).
Weaving the Web
. Internet Archive. HarperSanFrancisco. pp. 5?6.
ISBN
978-0-06-251586-5
.
- ^
Berners-Lee, T.; Cailliau, R.; Groff, J.-F.; Pollermann, B. (1992).
"World-Wide Web: The Information Universe"
.
Electron. Netw. Res. Appl. Policy
.
2
: 52?58.
doi
:
10.1108/eb047254
.
Archived
from the original on 27 December 2022
. Retrieved
27 December
2022
.
- ^
W3 (1991)
Re: Qualifiers on Hypertext links
Archived
7 December 2021 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Hopgood, Bob.
"History of the Web"
.
w3.org
. The World Wide Web Consortium.
Archived
from the original on 21 March 2022
. Retrieved
12 February
2022
.
- ^
"A short history of the Web"
.
CERN
.
Archived
from the original on 17 April 2022
. Retrieved
15 April
2022
.
- ^
"Software release of WWW into public domain"
.
CERN Document Server
. CERN. 30 January 1993.
Archived
from the original on 17 February 2022
. Retrieved
17 February
2022
.
- ^
"Ten Years Public Domain for the Original Web Software"
. Tenyears-www.web.cern.ch. 30 April 2003.
Archived
from the original on 13 August 2009
. Retrieved
27 July
2009
.
- ^
Calore, Michael (22 April 2010).
"April 22, 1993: Mosaic Browser Lights Up Web With Color, Creativity"
.
Wired
.
Archived
from the original on 24 April 2018
. Retrieved
12 February
2022
.
- ^
Couldry, Nick (2012).
Media, Society, World: Social Theory and Digital Media Practice
. London: Polity Press. p. 2.
ISBN
9780745639208
.
Archived
from the original on 27 February 2024
. Retrieved
11 December
2020
.
- ^
Hoffman, Jay (21 April 1993).
"The Origin of the IMG Tag"
.
The History of the Web
.
Archived
from the original on 13 February 2022
. Retrieved
13 February
2022
.
- ^
Clarke, Roger.
"The Birth of Web Commerce"
.
Roger Clarke's Web-Site
. XAMAX.
Archived
from the original on 15 February 2022
. Retrieved
15 February
2022
.
- ^
McCullough, Brian.
"20 YEARS ON: WHY NETSCAPE'S IPO WAS THE "BIG BANG" OF THE INTERNET ERA"
.
www.internethistorypodcast.com
. INTERNET HISTORY PODCAST.
Archived
from the original on 12 February 2022
. Retrieved
12 February
2022
.
- ^
Calore, Michael (28 September 2009).
"Sept. 28, 1998: Internet Explorer Leaves Netscape in Its Wake"
.
Wired
.
Archived
from the original on 30 November 2021
. Retrieved
14 February
2022
.
- ^
Daly, Janet (26 January 2000).
"World Wide Web Consortium Issues XHTML 1.0 as a Recommendation"
. W3C.
Archived
from the original on 20 June 2021
. Retrieved
8 March
2022
.
- ^
Hickson, Ian.
"WHAT open mailing list announcement"
.
whatwg.org
. WHATWG.
Archived
from the original on 8 March 2022
. Retrieved
16 February
2022
.
- ^
Shankland, Stephen (9 July 2009).
"An epitaph for the Web standard, XHTML 2"
. CNet.
Archived
from the original on 16 February 2022
. Retrieved
17 February
2022
.
- ^
"Memorandum of Understanding Between W3C and WHATWG"
. W3C.
Archived
from the original on 29 May 2019
. Retrieved
16 February
2022
.
- ^
In, Lee (30 June 2012).
Electronic Commerce Management for Business Activities and Global Enterprises: Competitive Advantages: Competitive Advantages
. IGI Global.
ISBN
978-1-4666-1801-5
.
Archived
from the original on 21 April 2024
. Retrieved
27 September
2020
.
- ^
Misiroglu, Gina (26 March 2015).
American Countercultures: An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S. History: An Encyclopedia of Nonconformists, Alternative Lifestyles, and Radical Ideas in U.S. History
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-1-317-47729-7
.
Archived
from the original on 21 April 2024
. Retrieved
27 September
2020
.
- ^
"World Wide Web Timeline"
.
Pew Research Center
. 11 March 2014.
Archived
from the original on 29 July 2015
. Retrieved
1 August
2015
.
- ^
"Frequently asked questions - Spelling of WWW"
. W3C.
Archived
from the original on 2 August 2009
. Retrieved
27 July
2009
.
- ^
Castelluccio, Michael (1 October 2010).
"It's not your grandfather's Internet"
.
Strategic Finance
. Institute of Management Accountants.
Archived
from the original on 5 March 2016
. Retrieved
7 February
2016
– via The Free Library.
- ^
"Audible pronunciation of 'WWW'
"
. Oxford University Press. Archived from
the original
on 25 May 2014
. Retrieved
25 May
2014
.
- ^
Harvey, Charlie (18 August 2015).
"How we pronounce WWW in English: a detailed but unscientific survey"
.
charlieharvey.org.uk
.
Archived
from the original on 19 November 2022
. Retrieved
19 May
2022
.
- ^
"Stephen Fry's pronunciation of 'WWW'
"
. Podcasts.com. Archived from
the original
on 4 April 2017.
- ^
Simonite, Tom (22 July 2008).
"Help us find a better way to pronounce www"
.
newscientist.com
. New Scientist, Technology.
Archived
from the original on 13 March 2016
. Retrieved
7 February
2016
.
- ^
Muylle, Steve; Moenaert, Rudy; Despont, Marc (1999). "A grounded theory of World Wide Web search behaviour".
Journal of Marketing Communications
.
5
(3): 143.
doi
:
10.1080/135272699345644
.
- ^
Flanagan, David.
JavaScript ? The definitive guide
(6 ed.). p. 1.
JavaScript is part of the triad of technologies that all Web developers must learn: HTML to specify the content of web pages, CSS to specify the presentation of web pages, and JavaScript to specify the behaviour of web pages.
- ^
"HTML 4.0 Specification ? W3C Recommendation ? Conformance: requirements and recommendations"
. World Wide Web Consortium. 18 December 1997.
Archived
from the original on 5 July 2015
. Retrieved
6 July
2015
.
- ^
Berners-Lee, Tim
;
Cailliau, Robert
(12 November 1990).
"WorldWideWeb: Proposal for a HyperText Project"
.
Archived
from the original on 2 May 2015
. Retrieved
12 May
2015
.
- ^
Berners-Lee, Tim.
"Frequently asked questions by the Press"
. W3C.
Archived
from the original on 2 August 2009
. Retrieved
27 July
2009
.
- ^
Palazzi, P (2011).
"The Early Days of the WWW at CERN"
. Archived from
the original
on 23 July 2012.
- ^
Fraser, Dominic (13 May 2018).
"Why a domain's root can't be a CNAME ? and other tidbits about the DNS"
.
FreeCodeCamp
.
Archived
from the original on 21 April 2024
. Retrieved
12 March
2019
.
- ^
"automatically adding www.___.com"
. mozillaZine. 16 May 2003.
Archived
from the original on 27 June 2009
. Retrieved
27 May
2009
.
- ^
Masnick, Mike (7 July 2008).
"Microsoft Patents Adding 'www.' And '.com' To Text"
. Techdirt.
Archived
from the original on 27 June 2009
. Retrieved
27 May
2009
.
- ^
a
b
Hamilton, Naomi (31 July 2008).
"The A-Z of Programming Languages: JavaScript"
.
Computerworld
. IDG.
Archived
from the original on 24 May 2009
. Retrieved
12 May
2009
.
- ^
Buntin, Seth (23 September 2008).
"jQuery Polling plugin"
. Archived from
the original
on 13 August 2009
. Retrieved
22 August
2009
.
- ^
"website"
.
TheFreeDictionary.com
.
Archived
from the original on 7 May 2018
. Retrieved
2 July
2011
.
- ^
Patrick, Killelea (2002).
Web performance tuning
(2nd ed.). Beijing: O'Reilly. p. 264.
ISBN
978-0596001728
.
OCLC
49502686
.
- ^
Vamosi, Robert (14 April 2008).
"Gmail cookie stolen via Google Spreadsheets"
.
News.cnet.com
. Archived from
the original
on 9 December 2013
. Retrieved
19 October
2017
.
- ^
"What about the "EU Cookie Directive"?"
. WebCookies.org. 2013. Archived from
the original
on 11 October 2017
. Retrieved
19 October
2017
.
- ^
"New net rules set to make cookies crumble"
.
BBC
. 8 March 2011.
Archived
from the original on 10 August 2018
. Retrieved
18 February
2019
.
- ^
"Sen. Rockefeller: Get Ready for a Real Do-Not-Track Bill for Online Advertising"
.
Adage.com
. 6 May 2011.
Archived
from the original on 24 August 2011
. Retrieved
18 February
2019
.
- ^
Want to use my wifi?
Archived
4 January 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
, Jann Horn accessed 5 January 2018.
- ^
Hamilton, Nigel (13 May 2024).
"The Mechanics of a Deep Net Metasearch Engine"
.
IADIS Digital Library
: 1034?1036.
ISBN
978-972-98947-0-1
.
- ^
Devine, Jane; Egger-Sider, Francine (July 2004). "Beyond google: the invisible web in the academic library".
The Journal of Academic Librarianship
.
30
(4): 265?269.
doi
:
10.1016/j.acalib.2004.04.010
.
- ^
Raghavan, Sriram; Garcia-Molina, Hector (11?14 September 2001).
"Crawling the Hidden Web"
.
27th International Conference on Very Large Data Bases
.
Archived
from the original on 17 August 2019
. Retrieved
18 February
2019
.
- ^
"Surface Web"
. Computer Hope.
Archived
from the original on 5 May 2020
. Retrieved
20 June
2018
.
- ^
Wright, Alex (22 February 2009).
"Exploring a 'Deep Web' That Google Can't Grasp"
.
The New York Times
.
Archived
from the original on 1 March 2020
. Retrieved
23 February
2009
.
- ^
Madhavan, J., Ko, D., Kot, Ł., Ganapathy, V., Rasmussen, A., & Halevy, A. (2008). Google's deep web crawl. Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment, 1(2), 1241?52.
- ^
Shedden, Sam (8 June 2014).
"How Do You Want Me to Do It? Does It Have to Look like an Accident? ? an Assassin Selling a Hit on the Net; Revealed Inside the Deep Web"
.
Sunday Mail
. Archived from
the original
on 1 March 2020
. Retrieved
5 May
2017
.
- ^
a
b
Ben-Itzhak, Yuval (18 April 2008).
"Infosecurity 2008 ? New defence strategy in battle against e-crime"
.
ComputerWeekly
. Reed Business Information.
Archived
from the original on 4 June 2008
. Retrieved
20 April
2008
.
- ^
Christey, Steve & Martin, Robert A. (22 May 2007).
"Vulnerability Type Distributions in CVE (version 1.1)"
.
MITRE Corporation
.
Archived
from the original on 17 March 2013
. Retrieved
7 June
2008
.
- ^
"Symantec Internet Security Threat Report: Trends for July?December 2007 (Executive Summary)"
(PDF)
.
Symantec Internet Security Threat Report
.
XIII
. Symantec Corp.: 1?2 April 2008. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 25 June 2008
. Retrieved
11 May
2008
.
- ^
"Google searches web's dark side"
.
BBC News
. 11 May 2007.
Archived
from the original on 7 March 2008
. Retrieved
26 April
2008
.
- ^
"Security Threat Report (Q1 2008)"
(PDF)
. Sophos.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 31 December 2013
. Retrieved
24 April
2008
.
- ^
"Security threat report"
(PDF)
. Sophos. July 2008.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 31 December 2013
. Retrieved
24 August
2008
.
- ^
Fogie, Seth, Jeremiah Grossman, Robert Hansen, and Anton Rager (2007).
Cross Site Scripting Attacks: XSS Exploits and Defense
(PDF)
. Syngress, Elsevier Science & Technology. pp. 68?69, 127.
ISBN
978-1-59749-154-9
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 25 June 2008
. Retrieved
6 June
2008
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
O'Reilly, Tim (30 September 2005).
"What Is Web 2.0"
. O'Reilly Media. pp. 4?5.
Archived
from the original on 28 June 2012
. Retrieved
4 June
2008
.
and AJAX web applications can introduce security vulnerabilities like "client-side security controls, increased attack surfaces, and new possibilities for Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)", in
Ritchie, Paul (March 2007).
"The security risks of AJAX/web 2.0 applications"
(PDF)
.
Infosecurity
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 25 June 2008
. Retrieved
6 June
2008
.
which cites
Hayre, Jaswinder S. & Kelath, Jayasankar (22 June 2006).
"Ajax Security Basics"
. SecurityFocus.
Archived
from the original on 15 May 2008
. Retrieved
6 June
2008
.
- ^
Berinato, Scott (1 January 2007).
"Software Vulnerability Disclosure: The Chilling Effect"
.
CSO
.
CXO Media
. p. 7. Archived from
the original
on 18 April 2008
. Retrieved
7 June
2008
.
- ^
"2012 Global Losses From phishing Estimated At $1.5 Bn"
. FirstPost. 20 February 2013.
Archived
from the original on 21 December 2014
. Retrieved
25 January
2019
.
- ^
Prince, Brian (9 April 2008).
"McAfee Governance, Risk and Compliance Business Unit"
.
eWEEK
. Ziff Davis Enterprise Holdings.
Archived
from the original on 21 April 2024
. Retrieved
25 April
2008
.
- ^
Preston, Rob (12 April 2008).
"Down To Business: It's Past Time To Elevate The Infosec Conversation"
.
InformationWeek
. United Business Media.
Archived
from the original on 14 April 2008
. Retrieved
25 April
2008
.
- ^
Claburn, Thomas (6 February 2007).
"RSA's Coviello Predicts Security Consolidation"
.
InformationWeek
. United Business Media.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2009
. Retrieved
25 April
2008
.
- ^
Duffy Marsan, Carolyn (9 April 2008).
"How the iPhone is killing the 'Net"
.
Network World
. IDG. Archived from
the original
on 14 April 2008
. Retrieved
17 April
2008
.
- ^
boyd, danah; Hargittai, Eszter (July 2010).
"Facebook privacy settings: Who cares?"
.
First Monday
.
15
(8).
doi
:
10.5210/fm.v15i8.3086
.
- ^
"W3C Technical Reports and Publications"
. W3C.
Archived
from the original on 15 July 2018
. Retrieved
19 January
2009
.
- ^
"IETF RFC page"
. IETF. Archived from
the original
on 2 February 2009
. Retrieved
19 January
2009
.
- ^
"Search for World Wide Web in ISO standards"
. ISO.
Archived
from the original on 4 March 2016
. Retrieved
19 January
2009
.
- ^
"Ecma formal publications"
. Ecma.
Archived
from the original on 27 December 2017
. Retrieved
19 January
2009
.
- ^
"Unicode Technical Reports"
. Unicode Consortium.
Archived
from the original on 2 January 2022
. Retrieved
19 January
2009
.
- ^
"IANA home page"
. IANA.
Archived
from the original on 24 February 2011
. Retrieved
19 January
2009
.
- ^
Sikos, Leslie (2011).
Web standards ? Mastering HTML5, CSS3, and XML
.
Apress
.
ISBN
978-1-4302-4041-9
. Archived from
the original
on 2 April 2015
. Retrieved
12 March
2019
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI)"
. World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from
the original
on 2 April 2009
. Retrieved
7 April
2009
.
- ^
"Developing a Web Accessibility Business Case for Your Organization: Overview"
. World Wide Web Consortium.
Archived
from the original on 14 April 2009
. Retrieved
7 April
2009
.
- ^
"Legal and Policy Factors in Developing a Web Accessibility Business Case for Your Organization"
. World Wide Web Consortium.
Archived
from the original on 5 April 2009
. Retrieved
7 April
2009
.
- ^
"Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) Overview"
. World Wide Web Consortium.
Archived
from the original on 1 April 2009
. Retrieved
7 April
2009
.
- ^
"Internationalization (I18n) Activity"
. World Wide Web Consortium.
Archived
from the original on 16 April 2009
. Retrieved
10 April
2009
.
- ^
Davis, Mark (5 April 2008).
"Moving to Unicode 5.1"
.
Archived
from the original on 21 May 2009
. Retrieved
10 April
2009
.
- ^
"World Wide Web Consortium Supports the IETF URI Standard and IRI Proposed Standard"
(Press release). World Wide Web Consortium. 26 January 2005.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2009
. Retrieved
10 April
2009
.
Further reading
- Berners-Lee, Tim; Bray, Tim; Connolly, Dan; Cotton, Paul; Fielding, Roy; Jeckle, Mario; Lilley, Chris; Mendelsohn, Noah; Orchard, David; Walsh, Norman; Williams, Stuart (15 December 2004).
"Architecture of the World Wide Web, Volume One"
.
W3C
. Version 20041215.
- Berners-Lee, Tim (August 1996).
"The World Wide Web: Past, Present and Future"
.
W3C
.
- Brugger, Niels, ed,
Web25: Histories from the first 25 years of the World Wide Web
(Peter Lang, 2017).
- Fielding, R.; Gettys, J.; Mogul, J.; Frystyk, H.; Masinter, L.; Leach, P.; Berners-Lee, T. (June 1999). "Hypertext Transfer Protocol ? HTTP/1.1". Request For Comments 2616. Information Sciences Institute.
- Niels Brugger, ed.
Web History
(2010) 362 pages; Historical perspective on the World Wide Web, including issues of culture, content, and preservation.
- Polo, Luciano (2003).
"World Wide Web Technology Architecture: A Conceptual Analysis"
.
New Devices
.
- Skau, H.O. (March 1990). "The World Wide Web and Health Information".
New Devices
.
External links
|
---|
|
Types
| |
---|
Technology
| General
| |
---|
Features
| |
---|
Mechanism
| |
---|
Memetics
| |
---|
RSS
| |
---|
Social
| |
---|
Standard
| |
---|
|
---|
Form
| |
---|
Media
| |
---|
|
---|
Background
| |
---|
Sub-topics
| |
---|
Applications
| |
---|
Related topics
| |
---|
Standards
| Syntax and supporting technologies
| |
---|
Schemas, ontologies and rules
| |
---|
Semantic annotation
| |
---|
Common vocabularies
| |
---|
Microformat vocabularies
| |
---|
|
---|
|
---|
International
| |
---|
National
| |
---|
Other
| |
---|