Writing system of Indic origin
The
Tibetan script
is a segmental writing system (
abugida
) of
Indic
origin used to write certain
Tibetic languages
, including
Tibetan
,
Dzongkha
,
Sikkimese
,
Ladakhi
,
Jirel
and
Balti
. It has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages in close cultural contact with Tibet, such as
Thakali
[5]
and
Old Turkic
. The printed form is called
uchen script
while the hand-written cursive form used in everyday writing is called
ume script
. This writing system is used across the
Himalayas
and
Tibet
.
The script is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in
India
,
Nepal
,
Bhutan
and
Tibet
.
[6]
The Tibetan script is of
Brahmic
origin from the
Gupta script
and is ancestral to scripts such as
Meitei
,
[3]
Lepcha
,
[7]
Marchen
and the multilingual
?Phags-pa script
.
[7]
History
[
edit
]
According to traditional Tibetan historiography, the Tibetan script was introduced by
Thonmi Sambhota
in the first half of the 7th century, mainly for the codification of the sacred Buddhist texts.
[8]
[9]
From a contemporary academic perspective, this is merely a legend invented in the second half of the 11th century.
[10]
New research and writings suggest that there were one or more Tibetan scripts in use prior to the introduction of the current script by
Songtsen Gampo
and
Thonmi Sambhota
. The
Dunhuang manuscripts
are key evidence for this hypothesis.
[11]
Three orthographic standardisations were developed. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of
Buddhist scriptures
, emerged during the early 9th century. Standard orthography has not altered since then, while the spoken language
has changed
by, for example, losing complex
consonant clusters
. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects and in particular in the
Standard Tibetan
of
Lhasa
, there is a great divergence between current spelling (which still reflects the 9th-century spoken Tibetan) and current pronunciation. This divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of
spelling reform
, to write Tibetan
as it is pronounced
; for example, writing
Kagyu
instead of
Bka'-rgyud
.
[12]
The nomadic
Amdo Tibetan
and the western dialects of
Ladakhi
, as well as
Balti
, come very close to the
Old Tibetan
spellings.
[10]
But the grammar of these varieties has considerably changed. To write the modern varieties according to the classical orthography and grammar of
Classical Tibetan
would be the same as to write Italian according to that of Latin, or to write Hindi according to that of Sanskrit.
[10]
However, modern Buddhist elites in the Indian subcontinent insisted the classical orthography should not be altered even when used for lay purposes. This became an obstacle for many modern Tibetic languages to modernize or to introduce a written tradition.
Amdo Tibetan
was one of a few examples where the Buddhist elites initiated a spelling reform.
[10]
A spelling reform in
Ladakhi
was controversial due in part because it was first initiated by Christian missionaries.
[10]
Description
[
edit
]
Basic alphabet
[
edit
]
In the Tibetan script, the
syllables
are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a
tsek
(?); since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, this mark often functions almost as a space. Spaces are not used to divide words.
[13]
The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants.
[7]
As in other
Indic scripts
, each consonant letter assumes an
inherent vowel
; in the Tibetan script it is /a/. The letter
?
is also the base for dependent vowel marks.
Although some Tibetan dialects are
tonal
, the language had no tone at the time of the script's invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from
segmental
features, they can usually be correctly predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words.
|
Unaspirated
high
|
Aspirated
medium
|
Voiced
low
|
Nasal
low
|
|
Letter
|
IPA
|
Letter
|
IPA
|
Letter
|
IPA
|
Letter
|
IPA
|
Guttural
|
?
|
/ka/
|
?
|
/k?a/
|
?
[a]
|
/?a/
|
?
|
/ŋa/
|
Palatal
|
?
|
/t?a/
|
?
|
/t??a/
|
?
[a]
|
/d?a/
|
?
|
/?a/
|
Dental
|
?
|
/ta/
|
?
|
/t?a/
|
?
[a]
|
/da/
|
?
|
/na/
|
Labial
|
?
|
/pa/
|
?
|
/p?a/
|
?
[a]
|
/ba/
|
?
|
/ma/
|
Dental
|
?
|
/tsa/
|
?
|
/ts?a/
|
?
[a]
|
/dza/
|
?
|
/wa/
|
low
|
?
[a]
|
/?a/
|
?
[a]
|
/za/
|
?
|
/?a/
[14]
⟨?a⟩
|
?
|
/ja/
|
medium
|
?
|
/ra/
|
?
|
/la/
|
?
|
/?a/
|
?
|
/sa/
|
high
|
?
|
/ha/
|
?
|
/a/
⟨?a⟩
|
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
These voiced values are historical. They have been devoiced in modern Standard Tibetan.
Consonant clusters
[
edit
]
One aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be written either as radicals or they can be written in other forms, such as
subscript and superscript
forming
consonant clusters
.
To understand how this works, one can look at the radical
?
/ka/ and see what happens when it becomes
??
/kra/ or
??
/rka/ (pronounced /ka/). In both cases, the symbol for
?
/ka/ is used, but when the
?
/ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the
?
/ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, it is added as a superscript.
[7]
?
/ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants, thus
??
rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster
??
/?a/. Similarly, the consonants
?
/ra/, and
?
/ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants, thus
??
/? ~ ??a/;
??
/ca/.
Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, or post-postscript positions. For instance, the consonants
?
/k?a/,
?
/t?a/,
?
/p?a/,
?
/ma/ and
?
/a/ can be used in the prescript position to the left of other radicals, while the position after a radical (the postscript position), can be held by the ten consonants
?
/k?a/,
?
/na/,
?
/p?a/,
?
/t?a/,
?
/ma/,
?
/a/,
?
/ra/,
?
/ŋa/,
?
/sa/, and
?
/la/. The third position, the post-postscript position is solely for the consonants
?
/t?a/ and
?
/sa/.
[7]
Head letters
[
edit
]
The head (
???
in Tibetan, Wylie:
mgo
) letter, or superscript, position above a radical is reserved for the consonants
?
/ra/,
?
/la/, and
?
/sa/.
- When
?
/ra/,
?
/la/, and
?
/sa/ are in superscript position with
?
/ka/,
?
/t??a/,
?
/ta/,
?
/pa/ and
?
/t?sa/, there are no changes to their sounds in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
- ??
/ka/,
??
/ta/,
??
/pa/,
??
/t?sa/
- ??
/ka/,
??
/t??a/,
??
/ta/,
??
/pa/,
- ??
/ka/,
??
/ta/,
??
/pa/,
??
/t?sa/
- When
?
/ra/,
?
/la/, and
?
/sa/ are in superscript position with
?
/k?a/,
?
/t???a/,
?
/t?a/,
?
/p?a/ and
?
/t?s?a/, they lose their aspiration and become voiced in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
- ??
/ga/,
??
/d??a/,
??
/da/,
??
/ba/,
??
/dza/
- ??
/ga/,
??
/d??a/,
??
/da/,
??
/ba/,
- ??
/ga/,
??
/da/,
??
/ba/
- When
?
/ra/,
?
/la/, and
?
/sa/ are in superscript position with the nasal consonants
?
/ŋa/,
?
/?a/,
?
/na/ and
?
/ma/, they receive a high tone in Lhasa Tibetan, for example:
- ??
/ŋa/,
??
/?a/,
??
/na/,
??
/ma/
- ??
/ŋa/
- ??
/ŋa/,
??
/?a/,
??
/na/,
??
/ma/
- When
?
/la/ is in superscript position with
?
/ha/, it becomes a
voiceless alveolar lateral approximant
in Lhasa Tibetan:
Sub-joined letters
[
edit
]
The subscript position under a radical can only be occupied by the consonants
?
/ja/,
?
/ra/,
?
/la/, and
?
/wa/. In this position they are described as
????
(Wylie:
btags
, IPA: /ta?/), in Tibetan meaning "hung on/affixed/appended", for example
???????????
(IPA: /p?a.ja.ta?.t???a/), except for
?
, which is simply read as it usually is and has no effect on the pronunciation of the consonant to which it is subjoined, for example
??????????
(IPA: /ka.wa.suː.ka/).
Vowel marks
[
edit
]
The
vowels
used in the alphabet are
?
/a/,
??
/i/,
??
/u/,
??
/e/, and
??
/o/. While the vowel /a/ is included in each consonant, the other vowels are indicated by marks; thus
?
/ka/,
??
/ki/,
??
/ku/,
??
/ke/,
??
/ko/. The vowels
??
/i/,
??
/e/, and
??
/o/ are placed above consonants as diacritics, while the vowel
??
/u/ is placed underneath consonants.
[7]
Old Tibetan
included a reversed form of the mark for /i/, the gigu 'verso', of uncertain meaning. There is no distinction between long and short vowels in written Tibetan, except in
loanwords
, especially transcribed from the
Sanskrit
.
Vowel mark
|
IPA
|
Vowel mark
|
IPA
|
Vowel mark
|
IPA
|
Vowel mark
|
IPA
|
?
|
/i/
|
?
|
/u/
|
?
|
/e/
|
?
|
/o/
|
Numerical digits
[
edit
]
Tibetan numerals
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
Devanagari numerals
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
Arabic numerals
|
0
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
Tibetan fractions
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
Arabic fractions
|
-0.5
|
0.5
|
1.5
|
2.5
|
3.5
|
4.5
|
5.5
|
6.5
|
7.5
|
8.5
|
Punctuation marks
[
edit
]
Symbol/
Graphemes
|
Name
|
Function
|
??? ?
|
???????
yig mgo
|
marks beginning of a text, before a headline, front page of a
pecha
|
?
|
????????????
gter yig mgo
|
used in place of the
yig mgo
in
terma
texts
|
?
|
??????????????
yig mgo a phyed
|
used in place of the
yig mgo
in
terma
texts
|
?
|
????????????????
dpe rnying yig mgo
|
a variant of the
yig mgo
found in very old Tibetan texts
|
?
|
?????????????
bskur yig mgo
|
list enumerator (
Dzongkha
)
|
?
|
???
tseg
|
syllable
delimiter
, also used as a spacer to
justify
text in
pechas
|
?
|
??
shad
|
full stop
,
comma
, or
semicolon
(marks end of a sentence or clause, and originates from the
danda
of Indic scripts)
|
? ?
|
??????
nyis
shad
|
marks end of a paragraph or topic (cp.
pilcrow
)
|
? ??
|
??????
bzhi
shad
|
marks end of a chapter or entire section
|
? ??
|
???????
gsum
shad
|
same as
bzhi
shad
, but used when the preceding character is ? or ?
|
?
|
????????????????
rin chen spungs
shad
|
replaces
shad
after single,
orphaned
syllables, indicating to the reader that the preceding syllable continues from text on the previous line
|
?
|
??????
tsheg
shad
|
variant of
rin chen spungs
shad
|
?
|
?????????
nyis tsheg
shad
|
variant of
rin chen spungs
shad
|
?
|
????????
sbrul
shad
|
marks the start of a new text, often in a collection of texts, separates chapters, and surrounds inserted text
|
?
|
???????
gter
shad
|
replaces
shad
and variants thereof in
terma
texts
|
?
|
??????????
rgya gram
shad
|
sometimes used in place of the
yig mgo
in
terma
texts
|
?
|
??????
che mgo
|
literally, "big head"?used preceding a reference to the
Dalai Lama
or the name of another important
lama
or
tulku
that demands great respect
|
?
|
??????????
bsdus rtags
|
repetition
|
?
|
???????????????????
'
dzud rtags me long can
|
caret
(indicates text insertion)
|
?
|
???????????????
ang khang g.yon 'khor
|
left roof bracket
|
?
|
??????????????
ang khang g.yas 'khor
|
right roof bracket
|
?
|
?????????????
gug rtags g.yon
|
left bracket
|
?
|
????????????
gug rtags g.yas
|
right bracket
|
Extended use
[
edit
]
The Tibetan alphabet, when used to write other languages such as
Balti
,
Chinese
and
Sanskrit
, often has additional and/or modified
graphemes
taken from the basic Tibetan alphabet to represent different sounds.
Extended alphabet
[
edit
]
- In
Balti
, consonants ka, ra are represented by reversing the letters
? ?
(ka, ra) to give
? ?
(qa, ?a).
- The
Sanskrit
retroflex consonants
?a, ?ha, ?a, ?a, ?a are represented in Tibetan by reversing the letters
? ? ? ? ?
(ta, tha, da, na, sha) to give
? ? ? ? ?
(?a, ?ha, ?a, ?a, ?a).
- It is a classical rule to transliterate Sanskrit
ca
,
cha
,
ja
,
jha
, to Tibetan
? ? ? ??
(tsa, tsha, dza, dzha), respectively. Nowadays,
? ? ? ??
(ca, cha, ja, jha) can also be used.
Extended vowel marks and modifiers
[
edit
]
Consonant Clusters
[
edit
]
In addition to the use of supplementary graphemes, the rules for constructing consonant clusters are amended, allowing any character to occupy the superscript or subscript position, negating the need for the prescript and postscript positions.
Romanization and transliteration
[
edit
]
Romanization and transliteration of the Tibetan script is the representation of the Tibetan script in the
Latin script
. Multiple Romanization and transliteration systems have been created in recent years, but do not fully represent the true phonetic sound.
[note 1]
While the
Wylie transliteration
system is widely used to Romanize
Standard Tibetan
, others include the Library of Congress system and the IPA-based transliteration (Jacques 2012).
Below is a table with Tibetan letters and different Romanization and transliteration system for each letter, listed below systems are:
Wylie transliteration
(W),
Tibetan pinyin
(TP),
Dzongkha
phonetic (DP),
ALA-LC Romanization
(A)
[15]
and
THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription
(THL).
Letter
|
W
|
TP
|
DP
|
A
|
THL
|
Letter
|
W
|
TP
|
DP
|
A
|
THL
|
Letter
|
W
|
TP
|
DP
|
A
|
THL
|
Letter
|
W
|
TP
|
DP
|
A
|
THL
|
?
|
ka
|
g
|
ka
|
ka
|
ka
|
?
|
kha
|
k
|
kha
|
kha
|
kha
|
?
|
ga*
|
k*
|
kha*
|
ga*
|
ga*
|
?
|
nga
|
ng
|
nga
|
nga
|
nga
|
?
|
ca
|
j
|
ca
|
ca
|
cha
|
?
|
cha
|
q
|
cha
|
cha
|
cha
|
?
|
ja*
|
q*
|
cha*
|
ja*
|
ja*
|
?
|
nya
|
ny
|
nya
|
nya
|
nya
|
?
|
ta
|
d
|
ta
|
ta
|
ta
|
?
|
tha
|
t
|
tha
|
tha
|
ta
|
?
|
da*
|
t*
|
tha*
|
da*
|
da*
|
?
|
na
|
n
|
na
|
na
|
na
|
?
|
pa
|
b
|
pa
|
pa
|
pa
|
?
|
pha
|
p
|
pha
|
pha
|
pa
|
?
|
ba*
|
p*
|
pha*
|
ba*
|
ba*
|
?
|
ma
|
m
|
ma
|
ma
|
ma
|
?
|
tsa
|
z
|
tsa
|
tsa
|
tsa
|
?
|
tsha
|
c
|
tsha
|
tsha
|
tsa
|
?
|
dza*
|
c*
|
tsha*
|
dza*
|
dza*
|
?
|
wa
|
w
|
wa
|
wa
|
wa
|
?
|
zha*
|
x*
|
sha*
|
zha*
|
zha*
|
?
|
za*
|
s*
|
sa*
|
za*
|
za*
|
?
|
'a
|
-
|
a
|
'a
|
a
|
?
|
ya
|
y
|
ya
|
ya
|
ya
|
?
|
ra
|
r
|
ra
|
ra
|
ra
|
?
|
la
|
l
|
la
|
la
|
la
|
?
|
sha
|
x
|
sha
|
sha
|
sha
|
?
|
sa
|
s
|
sa
|
sa
|
sa
|
?
|
ha
|
h
|
ha
|
ha
|
ha
|
?
|
a
|
a
|
a
|
a
|
a
|
|
* ? Only in
loanwords
|
Input method and keyboard layout
[
edit
]
Tibetan
[
edit
]
The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS
Windows Vista
. The layout has been available in
Linux
since September 2007. In
Ubuntu
12.04, one can install Tibetan language support through Dash / Language Support / Install/Remove Languages, the input method can be turned on from Dash / Keyboard Layout, adding Tibetan keyboard layout. The layout applies the similar layout as in Microsoft Windows.
Mac OS
-X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani.
Dzongkha
[
edit
]
The Dzongkha keyboard layout scheme is designed as a simple means for inputting
Dzongkha
text on computers. This keyboard layout was standardized by the
Dzongkha Development Commission
(DDC) and the
Department of Information Technology
(DIT) of the
Royal Government of Bhutan
in 2000.
It was updated in 2009 to accommodate additional characters added to the
Unicode
&
ISO 10646
standards since the initial version. Since the arrangement of keys essentially follows the usual order of the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet, the layout can be quickly learned by anyone familiar with this alphabet. Subjoined (combining) consonants are entered using the Shift key.
The Dzongkha (dz) keyboard layout is included in Microsoft Windows, Android, and most distributions of Linux as part of
XFree86
.
Unicode
[
edit
]
Tibetan was originally one of the scripts in the first version of the
Unicode
Standard in 1991, in the Unicode block U+1000–U+104F. However, in 1993, in version 1.1, it was removed (the code points it took up would later be used for the
Burmese script
in version 3.0). The Tibetan script was re-added in July, 1996 with the release of version 2.0.
The Unicode block for Tibetan is U+0F00–U+0FFF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks and special symbols used in religious texts:
Tibetan
[1]
[2]
[3]
Official Unicode Consortium code chart
(PDF)
|
|
0
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
A
|
B
|
C
|
D
|
E
|
F
|
U+0F0x
|
ༀ
|
༁
|
༂
|
༃
|
༄
|
༅
|
༆
|
༇
|
༈
|
༉
|
༊
|
་
|
༌
NB
|
།
|
༎
|
༏
|
U+0F1x
|
༐
|
༑
|
༒
|
༓
|
༔
|
༕
|
༖
|
༗
|
༘
|
༙
|
༚
|
༛
|
༜
|
༝
|
༞
|
༟
|
U+0F2x
|
༠
|
༡
|
༢
|
༣
|
༤
|
༥
|
༦
|
༧
|
༨
|
༩
|
༪
|
༫
|
༬
|
༭
|
༮
|
༯
|
U+0F3x
|
༰
|
༱
|
༲
|
༳
|
༴
|
༵
|
༶
|
༷
|
༸
|
༹
|
༺
|
༻
|
༼
|
༽
|
༾
|
༿
|
U+0F4x
|
ཀ
|
ཁ
|
ག
|
གྷ
|
ང
|
ཅ
|
ཆ
|
ཇ
|
|
ཉ
|
ཊ
|
ཋ
|
ཌ
|
ཌྷ
|
ཎ
|
ཏ
|
U+0F5x
|
ཐ
|
ད
|
དྷ
|
ན
|
པ
|
ཕ
|
བ
|
བྷ
|
མ
|
ཙ
|
ཚ
|
ཛ
|
ཛྷ
|
ཝ
|
ཞ
|
ཟ
|
U+0F6x
|
འ
|
ཡ
|
ར
|
ལ
|
ཤ
|
ཥ
|
ས
|
ཧ
|
ཨ
|
ཀྵ
|
ཪ
|
ཫ
|
ཬ
|
|
|
|
U+0F7x
|
|
ཱ
|
ི
|
ཱི
|
ུ
|
ཱུ
|
ྲྀ
|
ཷ
|
ླྀ
|
ཹ
|
ེ
|
ཻ
|
ོ
|
ཽ
|
ཾ
|
ཿ
|
U+0F8x
|
ྀ
|
ཱྀ
|
ྂ
|
ྃ
|
྄
|
྅
|
྆
|
྇
|
ྈ
|
ྉ
|
ྊ
|
ྋ
|
ྌ
|
ྍ
|
ྎ
|
ྏ
|
U+0F9x
|
ྐ
|
ྑ
|
ྒ
|
ྒྷ
|
ྔ
|
ྕ
|
ྖ
|
ྗ
|
|
ྙ
|
ྚ
|
ྛ
|
ྜ
|
ྜྷ
|
ྞ
|
ྟ
|
U+0FAx
|
ྠ
|
ྡ
|
ྡྷ
|
ྣ
|
ྤ
|
ྥ
|
ྦ
|
ྦྷ
|
ྨ
|
ྩ
|
ྪ
|
ྫ
|
ྫྷ
|
ྭ
|
ྮ
|
ྯ
|
U+0FBx
|
ྰ
|
ྱ
|
ྲ
|
ླ
|
ྴ
|
ྵ
|
ྶ
|
ྷ
|
ྸ
|
ྐྵ
|
ྺ
|
ྻ
|
ྼ
|
|
྾
|
྿
|
U+0FCx
|
࿀
|
࿁
|
࿂
|
࿃
|
࿄
|
࿅
|
࿆
|
࿇
|
࿈
|
࿉
|
࿊
|
࿋
|
࿌
|
|
࿎
|
࿏
|
U+0FDx
|
࿐
|
࿑
|
࿒
|
࿓
|
࿔
|
࿕
|
࿖
|
࿗
|
࿘
|
࿙
|
࿚
|
|
|
|
|
|
U+0FEx
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
U+0FFx
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Notes
- 1.
^
As of Unicode version 15.1
- 2.
^
Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points
- 3.
^
Unicode code points U+0F77 and U+0F79 are deprecated in Unicode 5.2 and later
|
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
Daniels, Peter T. (January 2008).
"Writing systems of major and minor languages"
. In Kachru, Braj B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S. N. (eds.).
Language in South Asia
. pp. 285?308.
doi
:
10.1017/CBO9780511619069.017
.
ISBN
978-0-521-78653-9
.
- ^
Masica, Colin (1993).
The Indo-Aryan languages
. p. 143.
- ^
a
b
Chelliah, Shobhana Lakshmi (2011).
A Grammar of Meithei
. De Gruyter. p. 355.
ISBN
9783110801118
.
Archived
from the original on 2023-04-13
. Retrieved
2023-03-19
.
Meithei Mayek is part of the Tibetan group of scripts, which originated from the Gupta Brahmi script
- ^
Singh, Harimohon Thounaojam (January 2011),
The Evolution and Recent Development of the Meetei Mayek Script
, Cambridge University Press India, p. 28
- ^
Manzardo, Andrew E.
"Impression Management and Economic Growth: The Case of the Thakalis of Dhaulagiri Zone"
(PDF)
.
Kailash: A Journal of Himalayan Studies
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2023-11-20
. Retrieved
2023-11-20
.
- ^
Chamberlain 2008
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright.
The World's Writing Systems
. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
- ^
William Woodville Rockhill,
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
, p. 671, at
Google Books
, United States National Museum, page 671
- ^
Berzin, Alexander.
A Survey of Tibetan History - Reading Notes Taken
by Alexander Berzin from Tsepon, W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet: A Political History. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1967:
http://studybuddhism.com/web/en/archives/e-books/unpublished_manuscripts/survey_tibetan_history/chapter_1.html
Archived
2016-06-17 at the
Wayback Machine
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Zeisler, Bettina (2006). "Why Ladakhi must not be written ? Being part of the Great Tradition Another kind of global thinking". In Anju Saxena; Lars Borin (eds.).
Lesser-Known Languages of South Asia
. p. 178.
- ^
Phuntsok, Thubten.
???????????????????????????????????????????? "A General History of Tibet"
.
- ^
Gamble, R. (2018).
Reincarnation in Tibetan Buddhism: The Third Karmapa and the Invention of a Tradition
. Oxford University Press. p. 62.
ISBN
978-0-19-069078-6
. Retrieved
2024-05-12
.
- ^
Chan, A.; Noble, A. (2009).
Sounds in Translation: Intersections of Music, Technology and Society
. DOAB Directory of Open Access Books. ANU E Press. p. 146.
ISBN
978-1-921536-55-7
. Retrieved
2024-05-12
.
- ^
Hill, Nathan W. (2005b).
"Once more on the letter ?"
(PDF)
.
Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area
.
28
(2): 111?141.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2022-06-16
. Retrieved
2022-06-01
.
;
Hill, Nathan W. (2009).
"Tibetan <?-> as a plain initial and its place in Old Tibetan phonology"
(PDF)
.
Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area
.
32
(1): 115?140.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2022-06-01
. Retrieved
2022-06-01
.
- ^
"ALA-LC Romanization of Tibetan script (PDF)"
(PDF)
.
Library of Congress
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 2018-04-13
. Retrieved
2017-12-29
.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Asher, R. E. ed.
The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
. Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press, 1994. 10 vol.
- Beyer, Stephan V. (1993).
The Classical Tibetan Language
. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
- Chamberlain, Bradford Lynn. 2008. Script Selection for Tibetan-related Languages in Multiscriptal Environments.
International Journal of the Sociology of Language
192:117?132.
- Csoma de K?ros, Alexander. (1983).
A Grammar of the Tibetan Language
. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
- Csoma de K?ros, Alexander (1980?1982).
Sanskrit-Tibetan-English Vocabulary
. 2 vols. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
- Daniels, Peter T. and William Bright.
The World's Writing Systems
. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
- Das, Sarat Chandra: "The Sacred and Ornamental Characters of Tibet".
Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
, vol. 57 (1888), pp. 41?48 and 9 plates.
- Das, Sarat Chandra. (1996).
An Introduction to the Grammar of the Tibetan Language
. Reprinted by Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
- Jacques, Guillaume 2012.
A new transcription system for Old and Classical Tibetan
Archived
2017-08-09 at the
Wayback Machine
, Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area, 35.3:89-96.
- Jaschke, Heinrich August. (1989).
Tibetan Grammar
. Corrected by Sunil Gupta. Reprinted by Delhi: Sri Satguru.
External links
[
edit
]