Ancient temples of Malta (3600 BC?2500 BC)
Megalithic Temples of Malta
UNESCO World Heritage Site
|
---|
|
Location
| Malta
|
---|
Includes
| |
---|
Criteria
| Cultural: (iv)
|
---|
Reference
| 132ter
|
---|
Inscription
| 1980 (4th
Session
)
|
---|
Extensions
| 1992, 2015
|
---|
Area
| 3.155 ha (339,600 sq ft)
|
---|
Buffer zone
| 167 ha (0.64 sq mi)
|
---|
Location of Megalithic Temples of Malta (the ones in
bold
are UNESCO World Heritage Sites)
|
The
Megalithic Temples of Malta
(
Maltese
:
It-Tempji Megaliti?i ta' Malta
) are several prehistoric temples, some of which are
UNESCO
World Heritage Sites
,
[1]
built during three distinct periods approximately between 3600 BC and 2500 BC on the island country of
Malta
.
[2]
They had been claimed as the oldest free-standing structures on Earth until the discovery of
Gobekli Tepe
in Turkey.
[3]
Archaeologists believe that these
megalithic
complexes are the result of local innovations in a process of cultural evolution.
[4]
[5]
This led to the building of several temples of the
?gantija
phase (3600?3000 BC), culminating in the large
Tarxien temple complex
, which remained in use until 2500 BC. After this date, the temple-building culture disappeared.
[6]
[7]
The ?gantija temples were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.
[8]
In 1992, the UNESCO Committee further extended the existing listing to include five other megalithic temple sites. These are
Ħa?ar Qim
(in
Qrendi
),
Mnajdra
(in Qrendi),
Ta' Ħa?rat Temples
(in
M?arr
),
Skorba Temples
(in
?ebbiegħ
) and Tarxien Temples (in
Tarxien
).
[8]
Nowadays, the sites are managed by
Heritage Malta
, while ownership of the surrounding lands varies from site to site.
[9]
[10]
Apart from these, there are other megalithic temples in Malta which are not included in the UNESCO World Heritage list.
Etymology
[
edit
]
Many of the names used to refer to the different sites carry a link with the stones used for their building. The
Maltese word
for boulders, 'ħa?ar', is common to
Ta' Ħa?rat
and
Ħa?ar Qim
. While the former uses the word in conjunction with the marker of possession, the latter adds the word
'Qim'
, which is either a form of the Maltese word for 'worship', or an
archaic
form of the word meaning 'standing'.
[11]
Maltese
folklore
describes
giants
as having built the temples, which led to the name ?gantija, meaning 'Giants' tower'.
[12]
The Maltese linguist
Joseph Aquilina
believed that Mnajdra (
Arabic
: ??????) was the diminutive of 'mandra' (
Arabic
: ?????), meaning a plot of ground planted with cultivated trees (the same usage is colloquial in
Egyptian Arabic
today); a less likely derivation is from the
Arabic
root 'manzara (
Arabic
: ?????), meaning 'a place with commanding views.'
[13]
The Tarxien temples owe their name to the locality where they were found (from
Tirix
, meaning a large stone), as were the remains excavated at Skorba.
History
[
edit
]
Dates
[
edit
]
The
temples
were the result of several phases of construction from 5000 to 2200
BC
. There is evidence of human activity in the islands since the
Early Neolithic Period
(
c.
5000 BC
), attested by pottery shards, evidence of fires, and bones.
[14]
[15]
The dating and understanding of the various phases of activity in the temples is not easy. The main problem found is that the sites themselves are evolutionary in nature, in that each successive temple brought with it further refinement to architectural development.
Furthermore, in some cases, later Bronze Age peoples built their own sites over the Neolithic temples, thus adding an element of confusion to early researchers who did not have modern dating technology.
Sir Temi ?ammit
, an eminent Maltese archaeologist of the late nineteenth century, had dated the Neolithic temples to 2800 BC and the Tarxien
Bronze Age
culture to 2000 BC.
[16]
These dates were considered "considerably too high" by scholars,
[17]
who proposed a reduction of half a millennium each.
[18]
However,
radiocarbon testing
favoured ?ammit's dating.
[19]
[20]
A theory that the temple art was connected with an
Aegean
-derived culture collapsed with this proof of the temples' elder origins.
[21]
Temple phases
[
edit
]
The development of the chronological phases, based on recalibrated
radiocarbon dating
, has split the period up to the
Bronze Age
in Malta into a number of phases. The first evidence of human habitation in the Neolithic occurred in the Għar Dalam phase, in c. 5000 BC. The Temple period, from c. 4100 BC to roughly 2500 BC, produced the most notable monumental remains. This period is split into five phases;
[
citation needed
]
[22]
however, the first two of these left mostly pottery shards. The next three phases, starting from the ?gantija phase, begins in c. 3600 BC, and the last, the Tarxien phase, ends in c. 2500 BC.
?gantija phase (3600?3200 BC)
[
edit
]
The
?gantija phase
is named after the
?gantija
site in
Gozo
. It represents an important development in the cultural evolution of neolithic humans on the islands. To this date belong the earliest datable temples and the first two, if not three, of the stages of development in their ground plan: the lobed or kidney-shaped plan found in
M?arr
east, the trefoil plan evident in Skorba, Kordin and various minor sites, and the five-apsed plan ?gantija South, Tarxien East.
[23]
Saflieni phase (3300?3000 BC)
[
edit
]
The
Saflieni phase
constitutes a transitional phase between two major periods of development.
[24]
Its name derives from the site of the
Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni
. This period carried forward the same characteristics of the ?gantija pottery shapes, but it also introduces new biconical bowls.
[25]
Tarxien phase (3150?2500 BC)
[
edit
]
The
Tarxien phase
marks the peak of the temple civilisation. This phase is named after the temple-complex at Tarxien, a couple of kilometres inland from the
Grand Harbour
. To it belong the last two stages in the development of the temple plan. The western temple at ?gantija represents, along with other units in Tarxien, Ħa?ar Qim and L-Imnajdra, the penultimate stage in development, that is, the introduction of a shallow niche instead of an apse at the far end of the temple. The final stage is testified in only one temple, the central unit at Tarxien, with its three symmetrical pairs of apses.
[26]
The Temple culture reached its climax in this period, both in terms of the craftsmanship of pottery, as well as in sculptural decoration, both free-standing and in relief.
[27]
Spiral reliefs resembling those at Tarxien once adorned the ?gantija temples, but have faded to a level where they are only clearly recognisable in a series of drawings made by the artist
Charles Frederick de Brocktorff
in 1829, immediately after the temples' excavation.
[28]
The Tarxien phase is characterised by a rich variety of
pottery
forms and decorative techniques. Most shapes tend to be angular, with almost no handles or lugs. The
clay
tends to be well prepared and fired very hard, while the surface of the scratched ware is also highly polished. This scratched decoration remains standard, but it becomes more elaborate and elegant, the most popular motif being a kind of
volute
.
[29]
Architecture and construction
[
edit
]
The Maltese temple complexes were built in different locations, and over a wide span of years; while each individual site has its unique characteristics, they all share a common architecture. The approach to the temples lies on an oval
forecourt
, levelled by terracing if the terrain is sloping. The forecourt is bounded on one side by the temples' own
facades
, which faces south or south-east. The monuments' facades and internal walls are made up of
orthostats
, a row of large stone slabs laid on end.
[30]
The centre of the facades is usually interrupted by an entrance doorway forming a
trilithon
, a pair of orthostats surmounted by a massive
lintel
slab.
[31]
[32]
Further trilithons form a passage, which is always paved in stone. This in turn opens onto an open space, which then gives way to the next element, a pair of D-shaped chambers, usually referred to as '
apses
', opening on both sides of the passage. The space between the apses' walls and the external boundary wall is usually filled with loose stones and earth, sometimes containing cultural debris including
pottery
shards.
[33]
The main variation in the temples lies in the number of apses found; this may vary to three, four, five or six. If three, they open directly from the central court in a
trefoil
fashion.
[34]
In cases of more complex temples, a second axial passage is built, using the same trilithon construction, leading from the first set of apses into another later pair, and either a fifth central or a
niche
giving the four or five apsial form. In one case, at the Tarxien central temple, the fifth apse or niche is replaced by a further passage, leading to a final pair of apses, making six in all.
[35]
With the standard temple plan, found in some thirty temples across the islands, there is a certain amount of variation both in the number of apses, and in the overall length?ranging from 6.5m in the Mnajdra east temple to 23m in the six-apsed Tarxien central temple.
The external walls were usually built of
coralline limestone
, which is harder than the globigerina limestone used in the internal sections of the temples.
[33]
[36]
The softer globigerina was used for decorative elements within the temples, usually carvings. These features are usually sculpted in relief, and they show a variety of designs linked to vegetative or animal
symbolism
.
[37]
These usually depict running
spiral motifs
, trees and plants as well as a selection of animals.
[38]
Although in their present form the temples are unroofed, a series of unproven theories regarding possible ceiling and roof structures have been debated for several years.
[39]
[40]
[41]
UNESCO sites
[
edit
]
?gantija
[
edit
]
The ?gantija temples stand at the end of the
Xagħra
plateau
, facing towards the south-east. Its presence was known for a very long time, and even before any excavations were carried out a largely correct plan of its layout was drawn by
Jean-Pierre Houel
in the late eighteenth century.
[42]
In 1827, the site was cleared of debris?the soil and remains being lost without proper examination.
[43]
The loss resulting from this clearance was partially compensated by the German artist Brochtorff, who painted the site within a year or two from the removal of the debris. This is the only practical record of the clearance.
[43]
A boundary wall encloses the temples. The southerly one is the elder, and is better preserved.
[44]
The plan of the temple incorporates five large apses, with traces of the plaster that once covered the irregular wall still clinging between the blocks.
[45]
Ta' Ħa?rat
[
edit
]
The Ta' Ħa?rat temple in
M?arr
is on the eastern outskirts of the village, roughly one kilometer from the
Ta' Skorba temples
.
[46]
The remains consist of a double temple, made up of two adjacent complexes, both in the shape of a trefoil. The two parts are both less regularly planned and smaller in size than many of the other neolithic temples in Malta, and no blocks are decorated.
[47]
Sir Temi ?ammit excavated the site in 1925?27. A village on the site that pre-dates the temples by centuries has provided plentiful examples of what is now known as
M?arr phase
pottery.
[48]
Skorba
[
edit
]
The importance of this site lies less in the remains than in the information garnered from their excavations.
[49]
This monument has a typical three-apsed shape of the ?gantija phase, of which the greater part of the first two apses and the whole of the facade have been destroyed to ground level. What remains are the stone paving of the entrance passage, with its perforations, the
torba
floors,
[50]
and a large upright slab of coralline limestone.
[51]
The north wall is in better shape; originally the entrance opened on a court, but the doorway was later closed off in the Tarxien phase, with altars set in the corners formed by the closure.
[52]
East of this temple, a second monument was added in the Tarxien phase, with four apses and a central niche.
[53]
Before the temples were built, the area had supported a village over a period of roughly twelve centuries.
The oldest structure is the eleven-metre-long straight wall to the west of the temples' first entrance.
[54]
The deposit against it contained material from the first known human occupation of the island, the Għar Dalam phase. Among the domestic deposits found in this material, which included charcoal and carbonised grain, there were several fragments of daub, accidentally baked.
[55]
The charcoal fragments were then radiocarbon dated, and their age analysis stood at 4850 BC.
[54]
Ħa?ar Qim
[
edit
]
Ħa?ar Qim
stands on a ridge some two kilometers away from the villages of
Qrendi
and
Si??iewi
.
[56]
Its builders used the soft
globigerina
limestone that caps the ridge to construct the temple.
[57]
One can clearly see the effects of this choice in the outer southern wall, where the great orthostats are exposed to the sea-winds. Here the temple has suffered from severe weathering and surface flaking over the centuries.
[58]
The temple's facade is typical, with a trilithon entrance, a bench and orthostats. It has a wide forecourt with a retaining wall, through which a passage runs through the middle of the building.
[59]
This entrance passage and first court follow the common, though considerably modified, Maltese megalithic design.
[60]
A separate entrance gives access to four enclosures, which are independent of each other and replace the north-westerly apse.
[61]
Mnajdra
[
edit
]
L-Imnajdra temples lies in a hollow 500 metres from Ħa?ar Qim.
[62]
It is another complex site in its own right, and it is centred on a near circular forecourt. Three adjacent temples overlook it from one side, while a terrace from the other separates it from a steep slope that runs down to the sea.
[63]
The first buildings on the right are small irregular chambers, similar to the enclosures in Ħa?ar Qim.
[64]
Then there is a small trefoil temple, dating from the ?gantija phase, with pitted decorations. Its unusual triple entrance was copied on a larger scale in the second temple.
[31]
The middle temple was actually the last to be built, inserted between the others in the Tarxien phase, after 3100 BC.
[65]
It has four apses and a niche.
The third temple, built early in the Tarxien phase and so second in date, opens on the court at a lower level.
[66]
It has a markedly concave facade, with a bench, orthostats and trilithon entrance.
The southern temple is oriented astronomically aligned with the rising sun during
solstices
and
equinoxes
; during the summer solstice the first rays of sunlight light up the edge of a decorated megalith between the first apses, while during the
winter solstice
the same effect occurs on a megalith in the opposite apse.
[67]
During the equinox, the rays of the rising sun pass straight through the principal doorway to reach the innermost central niche.
[68]
Tarxien
[
edit
]
The Tarxien temple complex is found some 400 metres to the east of the
Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni
.
[69]
The three temples found here were seriously excavated in the early twentieth century by Temi ?ammit.
[70]
Unlike the other sites, this temple is bounded on all sides by modern urban development; however, this does not detract from its value. One enters into the first great forecourt of the southern temple, marked by its rounded facade and a cistern, which is attributed to the temple.
[71]
The earliest temple to the north-east was built between 3600 and 3200 BC; it consisted of two parallel sets of semi-circular apses, with a passage in the middle.
[72]
The south and east temples were built in the Tarxien phase, between 3150 and 2500 BC. The second one has three parallel semi-circular apses, connected by a large passage; the third one has two parallel sets of apses with a passage in a direction parallel to that of the first temple. The first temple is solidly built with large stones, of which some are roughly dressed.
[73]
The walls are laid with great accuracy, and are very imposing in their simplicity.
[74]
The second temple is more elaborately constructed, the walls being finished with greater care, some of the standing slabs being decorated with flat raised spirals.
[75]
In one of the chambers, two bulls and a sow are cut in low relief across one of the walls.
[76]
The third temple has a carelessly-built frame, but most of its standing stones are richly decorated with carved patterns.
Other sites
[
edit
]
Malta has various other megalithic temples and related sites apart from those included in the UNESCO World Heritage list.
[77]
These include:
Some of these sites were excavated but afterwards reburied, such as the Debdieba site. Others, such as Kordin I and II, were destroyed. The other temples usually consist of only a few scattered megaliths or remains, but some such as Bu?ibba Temple (which is now in the grounds of a hotel) are in better condition. A few sites, such as Ta' Mar?iena, have never been excavated. Tas-Sil? contains few megalithic remains, but many more Bronze Age and later remains since the site was used until at least the ninth century AD.
Apart from these, cart ruts were found at
Misraħ Għar il-Kbir
, but these may or may not date from the temple period. A submerged site known as
?ebel ?ol-Baħar
possibly exists off the coast of Malta, but it is not proven to be a megalithic temple.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"21 World Heritage Sites you have probably never heard of"
. Daily Telegraph. 4 March 2018.
- ^
"Megalithic Temples of Malta ? UNESCO World Heritage Centre"
. Whc.unesco.org
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Temples of Malta"
. Bradshawfoundation.com
. Retrieved
2009-07-22
.
- ^
Blouet,
The Story of Malta
, p. 22
- ^
"Prehistoric Temples of Malta"
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
Blouet,
The Story of Malta
, p. 28
- ^
"Malta: Ancient Home to Goddesses and Fertility Cults"
. Archived from
the original
on 2006-12-14
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
a
b
"Megalithic Temples of Malta"
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
"Malta Temples and The OTS Foundation"
. Otsf.org
. Retrieved
2009-07-22
.
- ^
David Trump et al., Malta Before History (2004: Miranda Publishers)
- ^
Wettinger, Godfrey (2008).
"Stramberiji fl-Ismijiet tal-Inħawi Maltin"
(PDF)
.
L-Imnara
.
9
(32): 8.
- ^
De Soldanis,
Gozo, Ancient and Modern, Religious and Profane, Book I
, pp. 86?88
- ^
Aquilina,
Maltese- English Dictionary
, p. 776
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 5
- ^
"Maltese Temples"
. Archived from
the original
on May 4, 2008
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
Evans,
Malta. Ancient Peoples and Places series, XI
, p. 22
- ^
Evans,
Malta. Ancient Peoples and Places series, XI
, p. 25
- ^
Evans,
Malta. Ancient Peoples and Places series, XI
, pp. 46?47
- ^
Monsarrat, Ann (1994).
"The stone age temples of Malta"
.
UNESCO Courier
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
"How old are the Maltese temples?"
. Archived from
the original
on 2012-02-14
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
Renfrew,
Ancient Europe is older than we thought, National Geographic
, pp. 614?623
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, pp. 10-11.
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 55
- ^
Bonanno,
An illustrated guide to prehistoric Gozo
, p. 14
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, pp. 223?226
- ^
Bonanno,
An illustrated guide to prehistoric Gozo
, pp. 14?15
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 72
- ^
Bonanno,
An illustrated guide to prehistoric Gozo
, p. 15
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, pp. 226?232
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 69
- ^
a
b
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 58
- ^
"Malta"
. Archived from
the original
on 2006-12-14
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
a
b
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 71
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 52
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 99
- ^
Cassar, Joann (2010). 'The use of limestone in historic context', in Smith, Bernard J. (ed.),
"Limestone in the Built Environment: Present-day Challenges for the Preservation of the Past"
. Geographical Society of London, p. 16-18.
ISBN
1862392943
.
ISBN
9781862392946
.
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 92
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 94
- ^
Chalmers, Alan; Debattista, Kurt (2005). Mudge, Mark; Ryan, Nick; Scopigno, Roberto (eds.).
Investigating the Structural Validity of Virtual Reconstructions of Prehistoric Maltese Temples
. VAST05: The 6th International Symposium on Virtual Reality, Archaeology and Cultural Heritage.
Eurographics
. pp. 107?112.
CiteSeerX
10.1.1.60.1928
.
doi
:
10.2312/VAST/VAST05/107-112
.
- ^
"Architecture"
. Retrieved
2008-09-19
.
- ^
"Malta: the small island of the giants"
. Retrieved
2008-09-19
.
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An Archaeological Guide
, p. 156
- ^
a
b
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 155
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An Archaeological Guide
, p. 159
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 152
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 154
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 142
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 155
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 137
- ^
Torba
is a cement-like flooring material made from the local globigerina limestone by crushing, watering and pounding. This is found in many megalithic temple floors; a version of it survived through to the modern era, and it was used in the roofing of Maltese houses.
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 145
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 156
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 159
- ^
a
b
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 138
- ^
Camilleri, Vladimir.
"Skorba"
.
niumalta.com
. Archived from
the original
on 6 April 2009.
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 28
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 95
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 142
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 98
- ^
"Heritage Malta: Ħa?ar Qim and Imnajdra"
. Archived from
the original
on 2013-03-01
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 31
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 148
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 101
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 53
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 103
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 151
- ^
"Malta temples by Mario Vassallo"
. Archived from
the original
on 2008-06-06
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
The Megalithic Temples of Malta: Draft Description
(PDF)
, Malta:
Heritage Malta
, p. 3, archived from
the original
(PDF)
on October 20, 2007
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 67
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 67
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 73
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, p. 72
- ^
"Tarxien Temples, Malta"
. Archived from
the original
on 2006-12-14
. Retrieved
2008-09-16
.
- ^
Trump, Cilia,
Malta Prehistory and Temples
, p. 122
- ^
?ammit, Mayrhofer,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, pp. 77?79
- ^
Trump,
Malta: An archaeological guide
, p. 75
- ^
"Text Browse by Country, County and Type of Site : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"L-Imramma Temple [it-Torri] Ancient Temple : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
Trump, David H. (2004),
Malta: Prehistory and Temples
, Misdea Book Ltd, pp. 140, 141,
ISBN
99909-93-94-7
- ^
"Buggiba Ancient Temple : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"Destroyed Megalithic Sites ? Debdieba"
. Web.infinito.it
. Retrieved
2014-09-27
.
- ^
"Destroyed Megalithic Sites ? Kordin I"
. Web.infinito.it
. Retrieved
2014-09-27
.
- ^
"Destroyed Megalithic Sites ? Kordin II"
. Web.infinito.it
. Retrieved
2014-09-27
.
- ^
Kordin III Ancient Temple
? megalithic.co.uk
- ^
"Destroyed Temples, Hal-Ginwi"
. Web.infinito.it
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"Qortin l-Mdawwar"
. Web.infinito.it
. Retrieved
2014-09-27
.
- ^
"Santa Verna Ancient Temple : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"Ta' Marziena Ancient Temple : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"Ta' Raddiena Ancient Temple : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"Tal-Qadi Ancient Temple : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"Tas-Silg"
. Web.infinito.it
. Retrieved
2014-09-27
.
- ^
"Xemxija Temple Ancient Temple : The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map"
. Megalithic.co.uk
. Retrieved
2011-10-09
.
- ^
"Destroyed Megalithic Sites ? Xrobb l-Għa?in"
. Web.infinito.it
. Retrieved
2014-09-27
.
- Notes
- Abela, ?.F., 1647,
Della Descrittione di Malta
, Malta.
- Agius De Soldanis, Can. G.P.F., 1739,
Gozo, Ancient and Modern, Religious and Profane
, Malta.
- Agius, A.J., 1959,
The Hal Saflieni Hypogeum
, Union Press, Malta.
- Aquilina,J., 1990,
Maltese ? English Dictionary
, Malta.
- Ashby, T., ?ammit, T., Despott, G., 1916,
Excavations in Malta in 1914
, in
Man
, 1916,
1
:14. The Royal Anthropological Institute, London.
- Bezzina, J., 1990,
The ?gantija Temples
, Gozo.
- Bonanno, A., 1986,
An illustrated guide to prehistoric Gozo
. Gozo Press, Malta.
- Bonanno, A., 1990,
Malta, an Archaeological paradise
, Malta.
- Caruana, A.A., 1882,
Phoenician and Roman Antiquities
, Malta.
- Ellul, J.S., 1988,
Malta’s Prediluvian Culture at the Stone Age Temples
, Malta.
- Evans, J.D., 1971,
The Prehistoric Antiquities of the Maltese Islands
, London.
- Evans, J.D., 1959,
Malta. Ancient Peoples and Places series
XI, Thames and Hudson, London.
- "Ħal-Saflieni Hypogeum (1982) Malta"
.
Ann Mette Heindorff
. Archived from
the original
on November 5, 2005
. Retrieved
September 16,
2008
.
- Houel, J.P., 1787,
Voyage Pittoresque des Isles Sicily, de Malte et de Lipari
, Paris.
- Micallef, P.I., 1990,
Mnajdra Prehistoric Temple a Calendar in Stone
, Malta.
- Mifsud, A., Mifsud, S., 1997,
Dossier Malta. Evidence For The Magdalenian
, Proprint Company Limited, Malta.
- Trump, D., Cilia, D., 2002,
Malta: Prehistory and Temples
, Midsea Books Ltd., Malta.
ISBN
99909-93-94-7
- Renfrew, C., 1977,
Ancient Europe is older than we thought
, in
National Geographic
152
, (5): 614?623.
- ?ammit, Sir T., 1929,
The Prehistoric Temples of Ħal Tarxien
, Malta.
- ?ammit, Sir T., 1929,
Malta: The Islands and their History
, Malta.
- ?ammit, Sir T., 1931,
The Western Group of Megalithic Remains in Malta
, Malta.
- ?ammit, Sir T., 1931,
Prehistoric Cart-tracks in Malta
, Malta.
- ?ammit, Sir T., 1931,
The Neolithic Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum
, Malta.
- ?ammit, Sir T., Mayrhofer K., 1995,
The Prehistoric Temples of Malta and Gozo
, Malta.
External links
[
edit
]
|
---|
Armenia
| |
---|
Azerbaijan
| |
---|
Bulgaria
| |
---|
France
| |
---|
Germany
| |
---|
Guernsey
| |
---|
Ireland
| |
---|
Jersey
| |
---|
Malta
| |
---|
Netherlands
| |
---|
Poland
| |
---|
Portugal
| |
---|
Russia
| |
---|
Scandinavia
| |
---|
Spain
| |
---|
Turkey
| |
---|
Ukraine
| |
---|
United
Kingdom
| England
| |
---|
Northern Ireland
| |
---|
Scotland
| |
---|
Wales
| |
---|
Isle of Man
| |
---|
|
---|
General
| |
---|
36°02′50″N
14°16′09″E
/
36.04722°N 14.26917°E
/
36.04722; 14.26917