Royal Spanish trading ships, 1565?1815
The
Manila galleon
(
Spanish
:
Galeon de Manila
;
Filipino
:
Galyon ng Maynila
), originally known as
La Nao de China
,
[1]
and
Galeon de Acapulco
,
[2]
refers to the
Spanish
trading
ships
that linked the
Spanish Crown
's
Viceroyalty of New Spain
, based in
Mexico City
, with its Asian territories, collectively known as the
Spanish East Indies
, across the
Pacific Ocean
. The ships made one or two round-trip voyages per year between the ports of
Acapulco
and
Manila
from the late 16th to early 19th century. The name of the
galleon
changed to reflect from which city the ship sailed,
[3]
setting sail from
Cavite
, in
Manila Bay
, at the end of June or first week of July, starting the return journey (
tornaviaje
) from Acapulco in March?April of the next calendar year, and returning to Manila in June?July.
[2]
The term "Manila galleon" can also refer to the trade route itself between Acapulco and Manila that was operational from 1565 to 1815.
[2]
The galleons sailed the Pacific, bringing to the Americas cargoes of Chinese and other Asian
luxury goods
such as
spices
and
porcelain
in exchange for New World silver. In addition, Filipino slaves known as "chinos esclavos" ("Chinese slaves") came across the Pacific to Mexico in what is known as the
trans-Pacific slave trade
.
[4]
[5]
The route also fostered cultural exchanges that shaped the identities and the culture of the countries involved.
[2]
The Manila galleons were known in New Spain as
La Nao de China
("The China Ship") on their voyages from the
Spanish East Indies
because they carried mostly
Chinese goods
shipped from Manila.
[6]
[7]
The Manila Galleon route was an early instance of
globalization
, representing a trade route from Asia that crossed to the Americas, thereby connecting all the world's continents in
global silver trade
.
[8]
The Spanish inaugurated the Manila galleon trade route in 1565 after the
Augustinian
friar and navigator
Andres de Urdaneta
pioneered the
tornaviaje
or return route from the Philippines to Mexico. Urdaneta and
Alonso de Arellano
made the first successful round trips that year, by taking advantage of the
Kuroshio Current
. The trade using "Urdaneta's route" lasted until 1815, when the
Mexican War of Independence
broke out.
In 2015, the Philippines and Mexico began preparations for the nomination of the Manila?Acapulco Galleon Trade Route in the
UNESCO
World Heritage List
with backing from Spain, which has also suggested the tri-national nomination of the archives on the Manila?Acapulco Galleons in the
UNESCO
Memory of the World Register
.
History
[
edit
]
Discovery of the route
[
edit
]
In 1521, a Spanish expedition led by
Ferdinand Magellan
sailed west across the Pacific using the westward
trade winds
. The expedition discovered the
Mariana Islands
and the
Philippines
and claimed them for Spain. Although Magellan was killed by natives commanded by
Lapulapu
during the
battle of Mactan
in the Philippines, one of his ships, the
Victoria
, made it back to Spain by continuing westward.
To settle and trade with these islands from the Americas, an eastward maritime return path was necessary. The
Trinidad
, which tried this a few years later, failed. In 1529,
Alvaro de Saavedra Ceron
also tried sailing east from the Philippines, but could not find "
westerlies
") across the Pacific. In 1543,
Bernardo de la Torre
also failed. In 1542, however,
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
helped pave the way by sailing north from Mexico to explore the Pacific coast, reaching just north of the
38th parallel
at the
Russian River
. The frustration of these failures is shown in a letter sent in 1552 from
Portuguese Goa
by the Spanish missionary
Francis Xavier
to
Simao Rodrigues
asking that no more fleets attempt the New Spain?East Asia route, lest they be lost.
[9]
The Manila?Acapulco galleon trade finally began when Spanish navigators
Alonso de Arellano
and
Andres de Urdaneta
discovered the eastward return route in 1565. Sailing as part of the expedition commanded by
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
to conquer the Philippines in 1564, Urdaneta was given the task of finding a return route.
Reasoning that the
trade winds
of the Pacific might move in a
gyre
as the Atlantic winds did, they sailed north, going all the way to the
38th parallel north
, off the east coast of Japan, before catching the westerlies that would take them back across the Pacific. He commanded a vessel which completed the eastward voyage in 129 days; this marked the opening of the Manila galleon trade.
Reaching the
west coast of North America
, Urdaneta's ship, the
San Pedro
, hit the coast near
Santa Catalina Island
, California, then followed the shoreline south to
San Blas
and later to
Acapulco
, arriving on October 8, 1565.
[12]
Most of his crew died on the long initial voyage, for which they had not sufficiently provisioned. Arellano, who had taken a more southerly route, had already arrived.
The English privateer
Francis Drake
also reached the California coast, in 1579. After capturing
a Spanish ship heading for Manila
, Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. He failed in that regard, but staked
an English claim
somewhere on the northern California coast. Although the ship's log and other records were lost, the officially accepted location is now called
Drakes Bay
, on
Point Reyes
south of Cape Mendocino.
[a]
[21]
By the 18th century, it was understood that a less northerly track was sufficient when nearing the North American coast, and galleon navigators steered well clear of the rocky and often fogbound northern and central California coast. According to historian William Lytle Schurz, "They generally made their landfall well down the coast, somewhere between
Point Conception
and
Cape San Lucas
... After all, these were preeminently merchant ships, and the business of exploration lay outside their field, though chance discoveries were welcomed".
[22]
The first motivation for land exploration of present-day California was to scout out possible way stations for the seaworn Manila galleons on the last leg of their journey. Early proposals came to little, but in 1769, the
Portola expedition
established ports at
San Diego
and
Monterey
(which became the administrative center of
Alta California
), providing safe harbors for returning Manila galleons.
The Manila galleon and California
[
edit
]
Monterey, California, was about two months and three weeks out from Manila in the 18th century, and the galleon tended to stop there 40 days before arriving in Acapulco. Galleons stopped in Monterey prior to California's Spanish settlement in 1769; however, visits became regular between 1777 and 1794 because the Crown ordered the galleon to stop in Monterey.
[23]
Trade
[
edit
]
Trade with
Ming China
via Manila served as a major source of revenue for the
Spanish Empire
and as a fundamental source of income for Spanish colonists in the Philippine Islands. Galleons used for the trade between East and West were crafted by Filipino artisans.
[24]
Until 1593, two or more ships would set sail annually from each port.
[25]
The Manila trade became so lucrative that
Seville
merchants petitioned king
Philip II of Spain
to protect the monopoly of the
Casa de Contratacion
based in Seville. This led to the passing of a decree in 1593 that set a limit of two ships sailing each year from either port, with one kept in reserve in Acapulco and one in Manila. An "armada", or armed escort of galleons, was also approved. Due to official attempts to control the galleon trade, contraband and understating of ships' cargoes became widespread.
[26]
The galleon trade was supplied by merchants largely from port areas of
Fujian
, such as
Quanzhou
, as depicted in the
Selden Map
, and
Yuegang
(the old port of
Haicheng
in
Zhangzhou
,
Fujian
),
[27]
who traveled to Manila to sell the Spaniards spices, porcelain, ivory,
lacquerware
, processed silk cloth and other valuable commodities. Cargoes varied from one voyage to another but often included goods from all over Asia: jade, wax, gunpowder and silk from China; amber, cotton and rugs from India; spices from Indonesia and Malaysia; and a variety of goods from Japan, the Spanish part of the so-called
Namban trade
, including
Japanese fans
, chests,
screens
, porcelain and
lacquerware
.
[28]
In addition,
slaves
of various origins, including East Africa, Portuguese India, the Muslim sultanates of Southeast Asia, and the Spanish Philippines, were transported from Manila and sold in New Spain. African slaves were categorized as
negros
or
cafres
while all slaves of Asian origin were called
chinos
. The lack of detailed records makes it difficult to estimate the total number of slaves transported or the proportions of slaves from each region.
[29]
Galleons transported goods to be sold in the Americas, namely in
New Spain
and
Peru
, as well as in European markets.
East Asia
trading primarily functioned on a
silver standard
due to Ming China's use of
silver ingots
as a medium of exchange. As such, goods were mostly bought with
silver mined from New Spain
and
Potosi
.
[26]
The cargoes arrived in Acapulco and were transported by land across Mexico. Mule trains would carry the goods along the China Road from Acapulco first to the administrative center of Mexico City, then on to the port of
Veracruz
on the
Gulf of Mexico
, where they were loaded onto the
Spanish treasure fleet
bound for Spain. The transport of goods overland by porters, the housing of travelers and sailors at inns by innkeepers, and the stocking of long voyages with food and supplies provided by
haciendas
before departing Acapulco helped to stimulate the economy of New Spain.
[30]
The trade of goods and exchanges of people were not limited to Mexico and the Philippines, since Guatemala, Panama, Ecuador, and Peru also served as supplementary streams to the main one between Mexico and Philippines.
[31]
Around 80% of the goods shipped back from Acapulco to Manila were from the Americas ? silver,
cochineal
, seeds, sweet potato, corn, tomato, tobacco, chickpeas, chocolate and cocoa, watermelon seeds, vines, and fig trees. The remaining 20% were goods transshipped from Europe and North Africa such as wine and olive oil, and metal goods such as weapons, knobs and spurs.
[28]
This Pacific route was the alternative to the trip west across the Indian Ocean, and around the
Cape of Good Hope
, which was reserved to Portugal according to the
Treaty of Tordesillas
. It also avoided stopping over at ports controlled by competing powers such as Portugal and the Netherlands. From the early days of exploration, the Spanish knew that the American continent was much narrower across the
Panamanian isthmus
than across Mexico. They tried to establish a regular land crossing there, but the thick jungle and tropical diseases such as
yellow fever
and
malaria
made it impractical.
[
citation needed
]
It took at least four months to sail across the Pacific Ocean from Manila to Acapulco, and the galleons were the main link between the Philippines and the viceregal capital at
Mexico City
and thence to Spain itself. Many of the so-called "Kastilas" or Spaniards in the Philippines were actually of Mexican descent, and the Hispanic culture of the Philippines is influenced by Spanish and Mexican culture in particular.
[32]
Soldiers and settlers recruited from Mexico and Peru also gathered in Acapulco before they were sent to settle at the
presidios
of the Philippines.
[33]
Even after the galleon era, and at the time when Mexico finally gained its independence, the two nations still continued to trade, except for a brief lull during the
Spanish?American War
.
In Manila, the safety of ocean crossings was commended to the virgin
Nuestra Senora de la Soledad de Porta Vaga
in masses held by the Archbishop of Manila. If the expedition was successful the voyagers would go to La Ermita (the church) to pay homage, and offer gold and other precious gems or jewelries from Hispanic countries to the image of the virgin. So it came to be that the virgin was named the "Queen of the Galleons".
Economic shocks due to the arrival of Spanish-American silver in China were among the factors that led to the
end of the Ming dynasty
.
End of the galleons
[
edit
]
In 1740, as part of the administrative changes of the
Bourbon Reforms
, the Spanish crown began allowing the use of registered ships or
navios de registro
in the Pacific. These ships traveled solo, outside the convoy system of the galleons. While these solo voyages would not immediately replace the galleon system, they were more efficient and better able to avoid being captured by the
Royal Navy
of
Great Britain
.
[34]
In 1813, the
Cortes of Cadiz
decreed the suppression of the route and the following year, with the end of the
Peninsular War
,
Ferdinand VII of Spain
ratified the dissolution. The last ship to reach Manila was the
San Fernando
or
Magallanes
,
[2]
which arrived empty, as its cargo had been requisitioned in Mexico.
[2]
The Manila?Acapulco galleon trade ended in 1815, a few years before Mexico gained independence from Spain in 1821. After this, the Spanish Crown took direct control of the Philippines, and governed directly from Madrid. Sea transport became easier in the mid-19th century after the invention of steam powered ships and the opening of the
Suez Canal
, which reduced the travel time from Spain to the Philippines to 40 days.
Galleons
[
edit
]
Construction
[
edit
]
Between 1609 and 1616, nine
galleons
and six galleys were constructed in Philippine shipyards. The average cost was 78,000 pesos per galleon and at least 2,000 trees. The galleons constructed included the
San Juan Bautista
,
San Marcos
,
Nuestra Senora de Guadalupe
,
Angel de la Guardia
,
San Felipe
,
Santiago
,
Salbador
,
Espiritu Santo
, and
San Miguel
. "From 1729 to 1739, the main purpose of the
Cavite
shipyard was the construction and outfitting of the galleons for the Manila to Acapulco trade run."
[35]
Due to the route's high profitability but long voyage time, it was essential to build the largest possible galleons, which were the largest class of European ships known to have been built until then.
[36]
[37]
In the 16th century, they averaged from 1,700 to 2,000 tons
[
which?
]
[
citation needed
]
, were built of Philippine hardwoods and could carry 300?500 passengers. The
Concepcion
, wrecked in 1638, was 43 to 49 m (141 ft 1 in to 160 ft 9 in) long and displaced some 2,000 tons. The
Santisima Trinidad
was 51.5 m (169 ft 0 in) long. Most of the ships were built in the Philippines; only eight were buit in Mexico.
Crews
[
edit
]
Sailors averaged age 28 or 29 while the oldest were between 40 and 50. Ships' pages were children who entered service mostly at age 8, many orphans or poor taken from the streets of Seville, Mexico and Manila. Apprentices were older than the pages and if successful would be certified as sailor at age 20. Mortality rates were high with ships arriving in Manila with a majority of their crew often dead from starvation, disease and scurvy, especially in the early years, so Spanish officials in Manila found it difficult to find men to crew their ships to return to Acapulco. Many
indios
of Filipino and Southeast Asian origin made up the majority of the crew. Other crew were made up of deportees and criminals from Spain and the colonies. Many criminals were sentenced to serve as crew on royal ships. Less than a third of the crew was Spanish and they usually held key positions aboard the galleon.
[38]
At port, goods were unloaded by dockworkers, and food was often supplied locally. In Acapulco, the arrival of the galleons provided seasonal work, as for dockworkers who were typically free black men highly paid for their back breaking labor, and for farmers and haciendas across Mexico who helped stock the ships with food before voyages. On land, travelers were often housed at inns or
mesones
, and had goods transported by muleteers, which provided opportunities for indigenous people in Mexico. By providing for the galleons, Spanish colonial America was tied into the broader global economy.
[30]
Shipwrecks
[
edit
]
The wrecks of the Manila galleons are legends second only to the wrecks of
treasure ships
in the Caribbean. In 1568, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi's own ship, the
San Pablo
(300 tons), was the first Manila galleon to be wrecked en route to Mexico. Between the years 1576 when the
Espiritu Santo
was lost and 1798 when the
San Cristobal (2)
was lost, twenty Manila galleons
[39]
wrecked within the Philippine archipelago. In 1596 the
San Felipe
was wrecked in Japan.
At least one galleon, probably the
Santo Cristo de Burgos
, is believed to have wrecked on the coast of Oregon in 1693. Known as the
Beeswax wreck
, the event is described in the oral histories of the
Tillamook
and
Clatsop
, which suggest that some of the crew survived.
[40]
[41]
[42]
Captures
[
edit
]
Between 1565 and 1815, 108 ships operated as Manila galleons, of which 26 were captured or sunk by the enemy during wartime, including the
Santa Ana
captured in 1587 by
Thomas Cavendish
off the coast of Baja California;
[2]
the
San Diego
, which was sunk in 1600 in
Bahia de Manila
by
Oliver Van Noort
;
[2]
Nuestra Senora de la Encarnacion
captured by
Woodes Rogers
in 1709;
[2]
Nuestra Senora de la Covadonga
captured in 1743 by
George Anson
;
[2]
Nuestra Senora de la Santisima Trinidad
captured in 1762 by HMS
Panther
and HMS
Argo
[35]
at the
Action of 30 October 1762
in the
San Bernardino Strait
;
[2]
San Sebastian
and
Santa Ana
captured in 1753?54 by George Compton;
[2]
[43]
and
Nuestra Senora de la Santisima Trinidad
, in 1762, by
Samuel Cornish
.
[2]
Possible contact with Hawaii
[
edit
]
Over 250 years, there were hundreds of Manila galleon crossings of the Pacific Ocean between present-day Mexico and the Philippines, with their route taking them just south of the
Hawaiian Islands
on the westward leg of their round trip and yet there are no records of contact with the Hawaiians. British historian
Henry Kamen
maintains that the Spanish did not have the ability to properly explore the Pacific Ocean and were not capable of finding the islands which lay at a latitude 20° north of the westbound galleon route and its currents.
[44]
However, Spanish exploration in the Pacific was paramount until the late 18th century. Spanish navigators discovered many islands including
Guam
, the
Marianas
, the
Carolines
and the Philippines in the North Pacific, as well as
Tuvalu
, the
Marquesas
, the
Solomon Islands
,
New Guinea
, and
Easter Island
in the South Pacific. Spanish navigators also discovered the
Pitcairn
and
Vanuatu
archipelagos during their search for
Terra Australis
in the 17th century.
This navigational activity poses the question as to whether Spanish explorers did arrive in the Hawaiian Islands two centuries before Captain
James Cook
's first visit in 1778.
Ruy Lopez de Villalobos
commanded a fleet of six ships that left Acapulco in 1542 with a Spanish sailor named Ivan Gaetan or Juan Gaetano aboard as pilot. Depending on the interpretation, Gaetano's reports seem to describe the discovery of either Hawaii or the Marshall Islands in 1555.
[45]
If it was Hawaii, Gaetano would have been one of the first Europeans to find the islands.
The westward route from Mexico passed south of Hawaii, making a short stopover in Guam before heading for Manila. The exact route was kept secret to protect the Spanish trade monopoly against competing powers, and to avoid Dutch and English pirates. Due to this policy of discretion, if the Spanish did find Hawaii during their voyages, they would not have published their findings and the discovery would have remained unknown. From Gaetano's account, the Hawaiian islands were not known to have any valuable resources, so the Spanish would not have made an effort to settle them.
[45]
This happened in the case of the Marianas and the Carolines, which were not effectively settled until the second half of the 17th century. Spanish archives
[
when?
]
contain a chart that depicts islands in the latitude of Hawaii but with the longitude ten degrees east of the Islands (
reliable methods of determining longitude
were not developed until the mid-eighteenth century). In this manuscript, the Island of
Maui
is named "La Desgraciada" (the unhappy, or unfortunate), and what appears to be the Island of
Hawaii
is named "La Mesa" (the table). Islands resembling
Kahoolawe
,
Lanai
, and
Molokai
are named "Los Monjes" (the monks).
[46]
The theory that the first European visitors to Hawaii were Spanish is reinforced by the findings of
William Ellis
, a writer and missionary who lived in early 19th century Hawaii, and recorded several folk stories about foreigners who had visited Hawaii prior to first contact with Cook. According to Hawaiian writer
Herb Kawainui Kane
, one of these stories:
concerned seven foreigners who landed eight generations earlier at
Kealakekua Bay
in a painted boat with an awning or canopy over the stern. They were dressed in clothing of white and yellow, and one wore a sword at his side and a feather in his hat. On landing, they kneeled down in prayer. The
Hawaiians
, most helpful to those who were most helpless, received them kindly. The strangers ultimately married into the families of chiefs, but their names could not be included in genealogies".
[45]
Some scholars, particularly American, have dismissed these claims as lacking credibility.
[47]
[48]
Debate continues as to whether the Hawaiian Islands were actually visited by the Spanish in the 16th century
[49]
with researchers like Richard W. Rogers looking for evidence of Spanish
shipwrecks
.
[50]
[51]
Preparations for UNESCO nominations
[
edit
]
In 2010, the Philippines foreign affairs secretary organized a diplomatic reception attended by at least 32 countries, for discussions about the historic galleon trade and the possible establishment of a galleon museum. Various Mexican and Filipino institutions and politicians also made discussions about the importance of the galleon trade in their shared history.
[52]
In 2013, the Philippines released a documentary regarding the Manila galleon trade route.
[53]
In 2014, the idea to nominate the Manila?Acapulco Galleon Trade Route as a
World Heritage Site
was initiated by the Mexican and Filipino ambassadors to
UNESCO
. Spain has also backed the nomination and suggested that the archives related to the route under the possession of the Philippines, Mexico, and Spain be nominated as part of another UNESCO list, the
Memory of the World Register
.
[54]
In 2015, the Unesco National Commission of the Philippines (Unacom) and the Department of Foreign Affairs organized an expert's meeting to discuss the trade route's nomination. Some of the topics presented include the Spanish colonial shipyards in
Sorsogon
, underwater archaeology in the Philippines, the route's influences on Filipino textile, the galleon's eastward trip from the Philippines to Mexico called
tornaviaje
, and the historical dimension of the galleon trade focusing on important and rare archival documents.
[55]
In 2017, the Philippines established the
Manila?Acapulco Galleon Museum
in Metro Manila, one of the necessary steps in nominating the trade route to UNESCO.
[56]
In 2018, Mexico reopened its Manila galleon gallery at the Archaeological Museum of Puerto Vallarta, Cuale.
[57]
In 2020, Mexico released a documentary regarding the Manila galleon trade route.
[58]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The Drakes Cove site began its review by the National Park Service (NPS) in 1994, thus starting an 18-year study of the suggested Drake sites. The first formal nomination to mark the Nova Albion site at Drake's Cove as a National Historic Landmark was provided to NPS on January 1, 1996. As part of its review, NPS obtained independent, confidential comments from professional historians. The NPS staff concluded that the Drake's Cove site is the "most probable"
[13]
and "most likely"
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
Drake landing site. The National Park System Advisory Board Landmarks Committee sought public comments on the Port of Nova Albion Historic and Archaeological District Nomination
[18]
and received more than two dozen letters of support and none in opposition. At the Committee's meeting of November 9, 2011, in Washington, DC, representatives of the government of Spain, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and Congresswoman Lynn Wolsey all spoke in favor of the nomination: there was no opposition. Staff and the Drake Navigators Guild's president,
Edward Von der Porten
, gave the presentation. The Nomination was strongly endorsed by committee member Dr. James M. Allan, Archaeologist, and the Committee as a whole which approved the nomination unanimously. The National Park System Advisory Board sought further public comments on the Nomination,
[19]
but no additional comments were received. At the Board's meeting on December 1, 2011, in Florida, the nomination was further reviewed: the Board approved the nomination unanimously. On October 16, 2012, Secretary of the Interior
Ken Salazar
signed the nomination and on October 17, 2012, The Drakes Bay Historic and Archaeological District was formally announced as a new National Historic Landmark.
[20]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Bernabeu Albert, Salvador, ed. (2013).
La Nao de China, 1565-1815. Navegacion, comercio e intercambios culturales
. Universidad de Sevilla. ISBN 8447215377, 9788447215379.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
(in Spanish)
.
"El Galeon de Manila. La ruta espanola que unio tres continentes".
Fundacion Museo Naval. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
- ^
Williams, Glyn (1999).
The Prize of All the Oceans
. New York: Viking. p. 4.
ISBN
0-670-89197-5
.
- ^
https://glocat.geneseo.edu/discovery/fulldisplay/alma995443659904833/01SUNY_GEN:01SUNY_GEN
- ^
https://brill.com/previewpdf/book/edcoll/9789004346611/BP000055.xml
- ^
"La Nao de China: The Spanish Treasure Fleet System"
.
Guampedia
. November 4, 2015
. Retrieved
September 14,
2020
.
- ^
Stampa, Manuel Carrera (1959).
"La Nao de la China"
.
Historia Mexicana
.
9
(1): 97?118.
JSTOR
25134990
.
- ^
Flynn, Dennis O.; Arturo Giraldez (2010).
China and the Birth of Globalization in the 16th Century
. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing.
- ^
Pereira Fernandez, Jose Manuel (2008).
"Andres de Urdaneta:
In memoriam
en el quinto centenario de su nacimiento"
[Andres de Urdaneta:
In memoriam
in the fifth centenary of his birthday]
(PDF)
.
Revista de Historia Naval
(in Spanish) (102). Spain: Ministry of Defence (Spain): 16.
ISSN
0212-467X
. Retrieved
November 19,
2020
.
The letter is referenced as
Rodriguez Rodriguez, I.; Alvarez Fernandez, J. (1991).
Andres de Urdaneta, agustino. En carreta sobre el Pacifico
[
Andres de Urdaneta, Augustinian. By cart over the Pacific
] (in Spanish). Zamora. p. 181.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Derek Hayes (2001).
Historical atlas of the North Pacific Ocean: maps of discovery and scientific exploration, 1500?2000
. Douglas & McIntyre. p. 18.
ISBN
9781550548655
.
- ^
"Archived copy"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on February 22, 2014
. Retrieved
September 28,
2015
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
- ^
"Archived copy"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on February 22, 2014
. Retrieved
September 28,
2015
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
- ^
"University of California Archaeological Site Survey Record, Mrn-230"
.
Winepi.com
. Archived from
the original
(DOC)
on May 25, 2017
. Retrieved
February 23,
2019
.
- ^
"A Brief History of Scholarship Relating to Drake's Port of Nova Albion"
.
Winepi.com
. Archived from
the original
(DOC)
on May 25, 2017
. Retrieved
February 24,
2019
.
- ^
"National Historic Landmarks Property Name: Drakes Bay Historic and Archeological District"
.
Winepi.com
. Archived from
the original
(DOC)
on May 25, 2017
. Retrieved
February 24,
2019
.
- ^
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Sources
[
edit
]
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Bjork, Katharine (1998). "The Link that Kept the Philippines Spanish: Mexican Merchant Interests and the Manila Trade, 1571?1815."
Journal of World History
vol. 9, no. 1, 25?50.
- Carrera Stampa, Manuel (1959). "La Nao de la China."
Historia Mexicana
9 no. 33, pp. 97-118.
- Gasch-Tomas, Jose Luis (2018).
The Atlantic World and the Manila Galleon: Circulation, Market, and Consumption of Asian Goods in the Spanish Empires, 1565-1650
. Leiden: Brill.
- Giraldez, Arturo (2015).
The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy
. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield.
- Luengo, Josemaria Salutan (1996).
A History of the Manila-Acapulco Slave Trade, 1565?1815
. Tubigon, Bohol: Mater Dei Publications.
- McCarthy, William J. (1993). "Between Policy and Prerogative: Malfeasance in the Inspection of the Manila Galleons at Acapulco, 1637."
Colonial Latin American Historical Review
2, no. 2, pp. 163?83.
- Oropeza Keresey, Deborah (2007). "Los 'indios chinos' en la Nueva Espana: la inmigracion de la Nao de China, 1565?1700." PhD dissertation, El Colegio de Mexico, Centro de Estudios Historicos.
- Rogers, R. (1999).
Shipwreck of Hawai'i: a maritime history of the Big Island
. Haleiwa, Hawaii: Pilialoha Publishing.
ISBN
0967346703
- Schurz, William Lytle. (1917)
"The Manila Galleon and California"
,
Southwestern Historical Quarterly
, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 107?126
- Schurz, William Lytle (1939).
The Manila Galleon
. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc.
External links
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edit
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