Indo-European language
Greek
(
Modern Greek
:
Ελληνικ?
,
romanized
:
Ellinika
,
pronounced
[elini?ka]
;
Ancient Greek
:
?λληνικ?
,
romanized
:
Hell?nik?
) is an independent branch of the
Indo-European
family of languages, native to
Greece
,
Cyprus
,
Italy
(in
Calabria
and
Salento
), southern
Albania
, and other regions of the
Balkans
, the
Black Sea
coast,
Asia Minor
, and the
Eastern Mediterranean
. It has the
longest documented history
of any Indo-European language, spanning at least 3,400 years of written records.
[10]
Its writing system is the
Greek alphabet
, which has been used for approximately 2,800 years;
[11]
[12]
previously, Greek was recorded in writing systems such as
Linear B
and the
Cypriot syllabary
.
[13]
The alphabet arose from the
Phoenician script
and was in turn the basis of the
Latin
,
Cyrillic
,
Coptic
,
Gothic
, and many other writing systems.
The Greek language holds a very important place in the history of the Western world. Beginning with the epics of
Homer
,
ancient Greek literature
includes many works of lasting importance in the
European canon
. Greek is also the language in which many of the foundational texts in science and philosophy were originally composed. The
New Testament
of the
Christian Bible
was also originally written in Greek.
[14]
[15]
Together with the
Latin
texts and traditions of the
Roman world
, the Greek texts and Greek societies of antiquity constitute the objects of study of the discipline of
Classics
.
During
antiquity
, Greek was by far the most widely spoken
lingua franca
in the
Mediterranean world
.
[16]
It eventually became the official language of the
Byzantine Empire
and developed into
Medieval Greek
.
[17]
In its
modern form
, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24
official languages of the European Union
. It is spoken by at least 13.5 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania,
Turkey
, and the many other countries of the
Greek diaspora
.
Greek
roots
have been widely used for centuries and continue to be widely used to coin new words in other languages;
Greek and Latin
are the predominant sources of
international scientific vocabulary
.
History
[
edit
]
Greek has been spoken in the
Balkan peninsula
since around the 3rd millennium BC,
[18]
or possibly earlier.
[19]
The earliest written evidence is a
Linear B
clay tablet
found in
Messenia
that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC,
[20]
making Greek the world's
oldest recorded
living language
.
[21]
Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now-extinct
Anatolian languages
.
Periods
[
edit
]
The Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods:
- Medieval Greek
(also known as
Byzantine Greek
): the continuation of Koine Greek up to the demise of the
Byzantine Empire
in the 15th century.
Medieval Greek
is a cover phrase for a whole continuum of different speech and writing styles, ranging from vernacular continuations of spoken Koine that were already approaching Modern Greek in many respects, to highly learned forms imitating classical Attic. Much of the written Greek that was used as the official language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine.
- Modern Greek
(also known as
Neo-Hellenic
):
[25]
Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period, as early as the 11th century. It is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several
dialects
of it.
Diglossia
[
edit
]
In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of
diglossia
: the coexistence of vernacular and archaizing written forms of the language. What came to be known as the
Greek language question
was a polarization between two competing varieties of Modern Greek:
Dimotiki
, the vernacular form of Modern Greek proper, and
Katharevousa
, meaning 'purified', a compromise between Dimotiki and
Ancient Greek
developed in the early 19th century that was used for literary and official purposes in the newly formed Greek state. In 1976, Dimotiki was declared the official language of Greece, after having incorporated features of Katharevousa and thus giving birth to
Standard Modern Greek
, used today for all official purposes and in
education
.
[26]
Historical unity
[
edit
]
The historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language are often emphasized. Although Greek has undergone morphological and phonological changes comparable to those seen in other languages, never since classical antiquity has its cultural, literary, and orthographic tradition been interrupted to the extent that one can speak of a new language emerging. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language.
[27]
It is also often
[
citation needed
]
stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, "
Homeric Greek
is probably closer to
Demotic
than 12-century
Middle English
is to
modern spoken English
".
[28]
Geographic distribution
[
edit
]
Greek is spoken today by at least 13 million people, principally in Greece and Cyprus along with a sizable
Greek-speaking minority in Albania
near the Greek-Albanian border.
[25]
A significant percentage of Albania's population has knowledge of the Greek language due in part to the Albanian wave of immigration to Greece in the 1980s and '90s and the Greek community in the country. Prior to the
Greco-Turkish War
and the resulting
population exchange in 1923
a very large population of Greek-speakers also existed in
Turkey
, though very few remain today.
[10]
A small Greek-speaking community is also found in
Bulgaria
near the Greek-Bulgarian border. Greek is also spoken worldwide by the sizable
Greek diaspora
which has notable communities in the
United States
,
Australia
,
Canada
,
South Africa
,
Chile
,
Brazil
,
Argentina
,
Russia
,
Ukraine
, the
United Kingdom
, and throughout the
European Union
, especially in
Germany
.
Historically, significant Greek-speaking communities and regions were found throughout the
Eastern Mediterranean
, in what are today
Southern Italy
, Turkey, Cyprus,
Syria
,
Lebanon
,
Palestine
, Israel,
Egypt
, and
Libya
; in the area of the
Black Sea
, in what are today Turkey,
Bulgaria
,
Romania
,
Ukraine
, Russia, Georgia,
Armenia
, and
Azerbaijan
; and, to a lesser extent, in the Western
Mediterranean
in and around
colonies
such as
Massalia
,
Monoikos
, and
Mainake
. It was also used as the official language of government and religion in the
Christian Nubian kingdoms
, for most of their history.
[29]
Official status
[
edit
]
Greek, in its modern form, is the
official language
of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population.
[30]
It is also the official language of Cyprus (nominally alongside
Turkish
) and the
British Overseas Territory
of
Akrotiri and Dhekelia
(alongside
English
).
[31]
Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the organization's
24 official languages
.
[32]
Greek is recognized as a
minority language
in Albania, and used co-officially in some of its municipalities, in the districts of
Gjirokaster
and
Sarande
.
[33]
It is also an official minority language in the regions of
Apulia
and
Calabria
in Italy. In the framework of the
European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
, Greek is protected and promoted officially as a regional and minority language in Armenia,
Hungary
, Romania, and Ukraine.
[34]
It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923
Treaty of Lausanne
.
[5]
[6]
[7]
Characteristics
[
edit
]
The
phonology
,
morphology
,
syntax
, and
vocabulary
of the language show both conservative and innovative tendencies across the entire attestation of the language from the ancient to the modern period. The division into conventional periods is, as with all such periodizations, relatively arbitrary, especially because, in all periods, Ancient Greek has enjoyed high prestige, and the literate borrowed heavily from it.
Phonology
[
edit
]
Across its history, the syllabic structure of Greek has varied little: Greek shows a mixed syllable structure, permitting complex syllabic onsets but very restricted codas. It has only
oral vowels
and a fairly stable set of consonantal
contrasts
. The main phonological changes occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman period (see
Koine Greek phonology
for details):
- replacement of the
pitch accent
with a
stress accent
.
- simplification of the system of
vowels
and
diphthongs
: loss of vowel length distinction, monophthongisation of most diphthongs and several steps in a
chain shift
of vowels towards
/i/
(
iotacism
).
- development of the
voiceless
aspirated
plosives
/p?/
and
/t?/
to the voiceless
fricatives
/f/
and
/θ/
, respectively; the similar development of
/k?/
to
/x/
may have taken place later (the phonological changes are not reflected in the orthography, and both earlier and later phonemes are written with
φ
,
θ
, and
χ
).
- development of the
voiced
plosives
/b/
,
/d/
, and
/?/
to their voiced fricative counterparts
/β/
(later
/v/
),
/ð/
, and
/?/
.
Morphology
[
edit
]
In all its stages, the
morphology
of Greek shows an extensive set of
productive
derivational affixes
, a limited but productive system of
compounding
[35]
and a rich
inflectional
system. Although its morphological categories have been fairly stable over time, morphological changes are present throughout, particularly in the
nominal
and verbal systems. The major change in the nominal morphology since the classical stage was the disuse of the
dative case
(its functions being largely taken over by the
genitive
). The verbal system has lost the
infinitive
, the
synthetically
-formed future, and
perfect tenses
and the
optative mood
. Many have been replaced by
periphrastic
(
analytical
) forms.
Nouns and adjectives
[
edit
]
Pronouns show distinctions in
person
(1st, 2nd, and 3rd),
number
(singular,
dual
, and plural in the ancient language; singular and plural alone in later stages), and
gender
(masculine, feminine, and neuter), and
decline
for
case
(from six cases in the earliest forms attested to four in the modern language).
[note 3]
Nouns, articles, and adjectives show all the distinctions except for a person. Both
attributive
and
predicative
adjectives
agree
with the noun.
Verbs
[
edit
]
The inflectional categories of the Greek verb have likewise remained largely the same over the course of the language's history but with significant changes in the number of distinctions within each category and their morphological expression. Greek verbs have
synthetic
inflectional forms for:
|
Ancient Greek
|
Modern Greek
|
Person
|
first, second and third
|
also
second person formal
|
Number
|
singular,
dual
and plural
|
singular and plural
|
tense
|
present
,
past
and
future
|
past and non-past (future is expressed by a
periphrastic construction
)
|
aspect
|
imperfective
,
perfective
(traditionally called
aorist
) and
perfect
(sometimes also called
perfective
; see
note about terminology
)
|
imperfective and perfective/aorist (perfect is expressed by a periphrastic construction)
|
mood
|
indicative
,
subjunctive
,
imperative
and
optative
|
indicative, subjunctive,
[note 4]
and imperative (other modal functions are expressed by periphrastic constructions)
|
Voice
|
active
,
medio-passive
, and
passive
|
active
and
medio-passive
|
Syntax
[
edit
]
Many aspects of the
syntax
of Greek have remained constant: verbs agree with their subject only, the use of the surviving cases is largely intact (nominative for subjects and predicates, accusative for objects of most verbs and many prepositions, genitive for possessors), articles precede nouns, adpositions are largely prepositional, relative clauses follow the noun they modify and relative pronouns are clause-initial. However, the morphological changes also have their counterparts in the syntax, and there are also significant differences between the syntax of the ancient and that of the
modern form of the language
. Ancient Greek made great use of participial constructions and of constructions involving the infinitive, and the modern variety lacks the infinitive entirely (employing a raft of new periphrastic constructions instead) and uses participles more restrictively. The loss of the dative led to a rise of prepositional indirect objects (and the use of the genitive to directly mark these as well). Ancient Greek tended to be verb-final, but neutral word order in the modern language is VSO or SVO.
Vocabulary
[
edit
]
Modern Greek inherits most of its vocabulary from Ancient Greek, which in turn is an Indo-European language, but also includes a number of
borrowings
from the languages of the populations that inhabited Greece before the arrival of Proto-Greeks,
[36]
some documented in
Mycenaean texts
; they include a large number of Greek
toponyms
. The form and meaning of many words have changed.
Loanwords
(words of foreign origin) have entered the language, mainly from Latin,
Venetian
, and
Turkish
. During the older periods of Greek, loanwords into Greek acquired Greek inflections, thus leaving only a foreign root word. Modern borrowings (from the 20th century on), especially from French and English, are typically not inflected; other modern borrowings are derived from
Albanian
,
South Slavic
(
Macedonian
/
Bulgarian
) and
Eastern Romance languages
(
Aromanian
and
Megleno-Romanian
).
Loanwords in other languages
[
edit
]
Greek words have been widely borrowed into other languages, including English. Example words include:
mathematics
,
physics
,
astronomy
,
democracy
,
philosophy
,
athletics
, theatre,
rhetoric
,
baptism
,
evangelist
, etc. Moreover, Greek words and
word elements
continue to be productive as a basis for coinages:
anthropology
,
photography
,
telephony
,
isomer
,
biomechanics
,
cinematography
, etc. Together with
Latin words
, they form the
foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary
; for example, all words ending in
?logy
("discourse"). There are many
English words of Greek origin
.
[37]
[38]
Classification
[
edit
]
Greek is an independent branch of the
Indo-European
language family. The ancient language most closely related to it may be
ancient Macedonian
, which, by most accounts, was a distinct
dialect of Greek
itself.
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
Aside from the Macedonian question, current consensus regards
Phrygian
as the closest relative of Greek, since they share a number of phonological, morphological and lexical
isoglosses
, with some being exclusive between them.
[39]
[43]
[44]
Scholars have proposed a
Graeco-Phrygian
subgroup out of which Greek and Phrygian originated.
[39]
[45]
[46]
[47]
Among living languages, some Indo-Europeanists suggest that Greek may be most closely related to
Armenian
(see
Graeco-Armenian
) or the
Indo-Iranian languages
(see
Graeco-Aryan
), but little definitive evidence has been found.
[48]
[49]
In addition,
Albanian
has also been considered somewhat related to Greek and Armenian, and it has been proposed that they all form a higher-order subgroup along with other
extinct languages
of the ancient Balkans; this higher-order subgroup is usually termed
Palaeo-Balkan
, and Greek has a central position in it.
[50]
[51]
Writing system
[
edit
]
Linear B
[
edit
]
Linear B
, attested as early as the late 15th century BC, was the first script used to write Greek.
[52]
It is basically a
syllabary
, which was finally deciphered by
Michael Ventris
and
John Chadwick
in the 1950s (its precursor,
Linear A
, has not been deciphered and most likely encodes a non-Greek language).
[52]
The language of the Linear B texts,
Mycenaean Greek
, is the earliest known form of Greek.
[52]
Cypriot syllabary
[
edit
]
Another similar system used to write the Greek language was the
Cypriot syllabary
(also a descendant of Linear A via the intermediate
Cypro-Minoan syllabary
), which is closely related to Linear B but uses somewhat different syllabic conventions to represent phoneme sequences. The Cypriot syllabary is attested in Cyprus from the 11th century BC until its gradual abandonment in the late Classical period, in favor of the standard Greek alphabet.
[53]
Greek alphabet
[
edit
]
Greek has been written in the Greek alphabet since approximately the 9th century BC. It was created by modifying the
Phoenician alphabet
, with the innovation of adopting certain letters to represent the vowels. The variant of the alphabet in use today is essentially the late
Ionic
variant, introduced for writing classical
Attic
in 403 BC. In classical Greek, as in classical Latin, only upper-case letters existed. The lower-case Greek letters were developed much later by medieval scribes to permit a faster, more convenient cursive writing style with the use of
ink
and
quill
.
The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with an uppercase (
majuscule
) and lowercase (
minuscule
) form. The letter
sigma
has an additional lowercase form (?) used in the final position of a word:
Diacritics
[
edit
]
In addition to the letters, the Greek alphabet features a number of
diacritical signs
: three different accent marks (
acute
,
grave
, and
circumflex
), originally denoting different shapes of
pitch accent
on the stressed vowel; the so-called breathing marks (
rough
and
smooth breathing
), originally used to signal presence or absence of word-initial /h/; and the
diaeresis
, used to mark the full syllabic value of a vowel that would otherwise be read as part of a diphthong. These marks were introduced during the course of the Hellenistic period. Actual usage of the grave in
handwriting
saw a rapid decline in favor of uniform usage of the acute during the late 20th century, and it has only been retained in
typography
.
After the writing reform of 1982, most diacritics are no longer used. Since then, Greek has been written mostly in the simplified
monotonic orthography
(or monotonic system), which employs only the acute accent and the diaeresis. The traditional system, now called the polytonic orthography (or polytonic system), is still used internationally for the writing of
Ancient Greek
.
Punctuation
[
edit
]
In Greek, the question mark is written as the English semicolon, while the functions of the colon and semicolon are performed by a raised point (?), known as the
ano teleia
(
?νω τελε?α
). In Greek the
comma
also functions as a
silent letter
in a handful of Greek words, principally distinguishing
?,τι
(
o,ti
, 'whatever') from
?τι
(
oti
, 'that').
[54]
Ancient Greek texts often used
scriptio continua
('continuous writing'), which means that ancient authors and scribes would write word after word with no spaces or punctuation between words to differentiate or mark boundaries.
[55]
Boustrophedon
, or bi-directional text, was also used in Ancient Greek.
Latin alphabet
[
edit
]
Greek has occasionally been written in the
Latin script
, especially in areas under
Venetian rule
or by
Greek Catholics
. The term
Frankolevantinika
/
Φραγκολεβαντ?νικα
applies when the Latin script is used to write Greek in the cultural ambit of Catholicism (because
Frankos
/
Φρ?γκο?
is an older Greek term for West-European dating to when most of (Roman Catholic Christian) West Europe was under the control of the
Frankish Empire
).
Frankochiotika
/
Φραγκοχι?τικα
(meaning 'Catholic Chiot') alludes to the significant presence of Catholic missionaries based on the island of
Chios
. Additionally, the term
Greeklish
is often used when the Greek language is written in a Latin script in online communications.
[56]
The Latin script is nowadays used by the
Greek-speaking
communities of
Southern Italy
.
Hebrew alphabet
[
edit
]
The
Yevanic
dialect was written by
Romaniote
and Constantinopolitan Karaite Jews using the
Hebrew Alphabet
.
[57]
Arabic alphabet
[
edit
]
Some
Greek Muslims
from Crete
wrote their
Cretan Greek
in the
Arabic alphabet
. The same happened among Epirote Muslims in
Ioannina
. This usage is sometimes called
aljamiado
, as when
Romance languages
are written in the Arabic alphabet.
[58]
Example text
[
edit
]
Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in Greek:
- ?λοι οι ?νθρωποι γεννιο?νται ελε?θεροι και ?σοι στην αξιοπρ?πεια και τα δικαι?ματα. Ε?ναι προικισμ?νοι με λογικ? και συνε?δηση, και οφε?λουν να συμπεριφ?ρονται μεταξ? του? με πνε?μα αδελφοσ?νη?.
[59]
Transcription
of the example text into
Latin alphabet
:
- Oloi oi anthropoi genniountai eleftheroi kai isoi stin axioprepeia kai ta dikaiomata. Einai proikismenoi me logiki kai syneidisi, kai ofeiloun na symperiferontai metaxy tous me pnevma adelfosynis.
Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
in English:
- "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
[60]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
The map does not indicate where the language is majority or minority.
- ^
A comprehensive overview in J.T. Hooker's
Mycenaean Greece
;
[22]
for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an autochthonous scenario, see Colin Renfrew's "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin"
[23]
in
Bronze Age Migrations
by R.A. Crossland and A. Birchall, eds. (1973).
- ^
The four cases that are found in all stages of Greek are the nominative, genitive, accusative, and vocative. The dative/locative of Ancient Greek disappeared in the late Hellenistic period, and the instrumental case of Mycenaean Greek disappeared in the Archaic period.
- ^
There is no particular morphological form that can be identified as 'subjunctive' in the modern language, but the term is sometimes encountered in descriptions even if the most complete modern grammar (Holton et al. 1997) does not use it and calls certain traditionally-'subjunctive' forms 'dependent'. Most Greek linguists advocate abandoning the traditional terminology (Anna Roussou and Tasos Tsangalidis 2009, in
Meletes gia tin Elliniki Glossa
, Thessaloniki, Anastasia Giannakidou 2009 "Temporal semantics and polarity: The dependency of the subjunctive revisited", Lingua); see
Modern Greek grammar
for explanation.
- ^
Greek
at
Ethnologue
(18th ed., 2015)
(subscription required)
Ancient Greek
at
Ethnologue
(18th ed., 2015)
(subscription required)
Cappadocian Greek
at
Ethnologue
(18th ed., 2015)
(subscription required)
Mycenaean Greek
at
Ethnologue
(18th ed., 2015)
(subscription required)
Pontic
at
Ethnologue
(18th ed., 2015)
(subscription required)
Tsakonian
at
Ethnologue
(18th ed., 2015)
(subscription required)
(Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box)
- ^
2006 Census Table: Language Spoken at Home by Sex ? Time Series Statistics (1996, 2001, 2006 Census Years)
- ^
Αυστραλ?α: Τηλεδι?σκεψη ≪Μιλ?με Ελληνικ? τον Μ?ρτιο≫
- ^
a
b
Tokta?, ?ule (2006).
"EU enlargement conditions and minority protection : a reflection on Turkey's non-Muslim minorities"
.
East European Quarterly
.
40
(4): 489?519.
ISSN
0012-8449
. p. 514:
This implies that Turkey grants educational right in minority languages only to the recognized minorities covered by the Lausanne who are the Armenians, Greeks and the Jews.
- ^
a
b
Bayır, Derya (2013).
Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law
. Cultural Diversity and Law. Farnham:
Ashgate Publishing
. pp. 89?90.
ISBN
978-1-4094-7254-4
.
Archived
from the original on 14 October 2023.
Oran farther points out that the rights set out for the four categories are stated to be the 'fundamental law' of the land, so that no legislation or official action shall conflict or interfere with these stipulations or prevail over them (article 37). [...] According to the Turkish state, only Greek, Armenian and Jewish non-Muslims were granted minority protection by the Lausanne Treaty. [...] Except for non-Muslim populations ? that is, Greeks, Jews and Armenians ? none of the other minority groups' language rights have been
de jure
protected by the legal system in Turkey.
- ^
a
b
Questions and Answers: Freedom of Expression and Language Rights in Turkey
. New York: Human Rights Watch. 19 April 2002.
Archived
from the original on 20 October 2023.
The Turkish government accepts the language rights of the Jewish, Greek and Armenian minorities as being guaranteed by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.
- ^
"Language Use in the United States: 2011"
(PDF)
.
United States Census
. Retrieved
17 October
2015
.
- ^
"gree1276"
. Council of Europe
. Retrieved
8 December
2008
.
- ^
a
b
"Greek language"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc
. Retrieved
29 April
2014
.
- ^
Haviland, William A.;
Prins, Harald E. L.
; Walrath, Dana;
McBride, Bunny
(2013).
"Chapter 15: Language and Communication"
.
Anthropology: The Human Challenge
.
Cengage Learning
. p. 394.
ISBN
978-1-285-67758-3
.
Most of the alphabets used today descended from the Phoenician one. The Greeks adopted it about 2,800 years ago, modifying the characters to suit sounds in their own language.
- ^
Comrie, Bernard
(1987).
The World's Major Languages
.
Routledge
(published 2018).
ISBN
978-1-317-29049-0
.
... the Greek alphabet has served the Greek language well for some 2,800 years since its introduction into Greece in the tenth or ninth century BC.
- ^
Adrados, Francisco Rodriguez (2005).
A history of the Greek language : from its origins to the present
. Leiden: Brill.
ISBN
978-90-04-12835-4
.
OCLC
59712402
.
- ^
Kurt Aland, Barbara Aland The text of the New Testament: an introduction to the critical 1995 p. 52.
- ^
Archibald Macbride Hunter Introducing the New Testament 1972 p. 9.
- ^
Malkin, Irad (2011).
A small Greek world : networks in the Ancient Mediterranean
. Oxford University Press.
doi
:
10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199734818.001.0001
.
ISBN
9780199918553
.
- ^
Manuel, Germaine Catherine (1989).
A study of the preservation of the classical tradition in the education, language, and literature of the Byzantine Empire
. HVD ALEPH.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Renfrew 2003
, p. 35;
Georgiev 1981
, p. 192.
- ^
Gray & Atkinson 2003
, pp. 437?438;
Atkinson & Gray 2006
, p. 102.
- ^
"Ancient Tablet Found: Oldest Readable Writing in Europe"
.
Culture
. 1 April 2011. Archived from
the original
on 25 July 2021
. Retrieved
20 January
2022
.
- ^
Tulloch, A. (2017).
Understanding English Homonyms: Their Origins and Usage
. Hong Kong University Press. p. 153.
ISBN
978-988-8390-64-9
. Retrieved
30 November
2023
.
Greek is the world's oldest recorded living language.
- ^
Hooker 1976
, Chapter 2: "Before the Mycenaean Age", pp. 11?33 and passim
- ^
Renfrew 1973
, pp. 263?276, especially p. 267
- ^
Dawkins & Halliday 1916
.
- ^
a
b
"Greek"
.
Ethnologue
. Retrieved
12 April
2020
.
- ^
Peter, Mackridge (1985).
The modern Greek language : a descriptive analysis of standard modern Greek
. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-815770-0
.
OCLC
11134463
.
- ^
Browning 1983
, pp. vii?viii.
- ^
Alexiou 1982
, p. 161.
- ^
Burstein, Stanley
(2 November 2020).
"When Greek was an African Language"
.
Center for Hellenic Studies
.
The revelation of the place of Greek cultural elements in the lives of these kingdoms has been gradual and is still ongoing, but already it is clear that Greek was the official language of government and religion for most of their history.
... Greek remained the official language of Nubian Christianity right to the end of its long and remarkable history.
... But these three factors do suggest how Greek and Christianity could have become so intimately intertwined and so entrenched in Nubian life and culture by the seventh century AD that Greek could resist both Coptic and Arabic and survive for almost another millennium before both disappeared with the conversion of Nubia to Islam in the sixteenth century AD.
- ^
"Greece"
.
The World Factbook
. Central Intelligence Agency
. Retrieved
23 January
2010
.
- ^
"The Constitution of Cyprus, App. D., Part 1, Art. 3"
. Archived from
the original
on 7 April 2012.
states that
The official languages of the Republic are Greek and Turkish
. However, the official status of Turkish is only nominal in the Greek-dominated Republic of Cyprus; in practice, outside Turkish-dominated
Northern Cyprus
, Turkish is little used; see A. Arvaniti (2006): Erasure as a Means of Maintaining Diglossia in Cyprus,
San Diego Linguistics Papers
2: pp. 25?38 [27].
- ^
"The EU at a Glance ? Languages in the EU"
.
Europa
. European Union. Archived from
the original
on 21 June 2013
. Retrieved
30 July
2010
.
- ^
Bytyci, Enver (2022).
In the Shadows of Albania-China Relations (1960?1978)
.
Cambridge Scholars Publishing
. p. 20.
ISBN
978-1-5275-7909-5
.
Albania's official language is Albanian, but in municipalities where minorities reside, the languages of these minorities are also used, including Greek in several municipalities in Gjirokastra and Saranda, and Macedonian in a municipality in the East of the country.
- ^
"List of Declarations Made with Respect to Treaty No. 148"
. Council of Europe.
Archived
from the original on 10 April 2020
. Retrieved
8 December
2008
.
- ^
Ralli 2001
, pp. 164?203.
- ^
Beekes 2009
.
- ^
Scheler 1977
.
- ^
"Π?σο "ελληνικ??" ε?ναι οι ξ?νε? γλ?σσε?"
.
NewsIt
. 18 November 2019.
- ^
a
b
c
Olander 2022
, pp. 12, 14;
van Beek 2022
, pp. 190?191, 193
- ^
Crespo, Emilio (2018). "The Softening of Obstruent Consonants in the Macedonian Dialect". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.).
Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea
. Walter de Gruyter. p. 329.
ISBN
978-3-11-053081-0
.
- ^
Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. (2018).
"Recent Research in the Ancient Macedonian Dialect: Consolidation and New Perspectives"
. In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.).
Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea
. Walter de Gruyter. p. 299.
ISBN
978-3-11-053081-0
.
- ^
Babiniotis 1992
, pp. 29?40;
Dosuna 2012
, pp. 65?78
- ^
Woodhouse 2009
, p. 171: "This question is of course only just separable from the question of which languages within Indo-European are most closely related to Phrygian, which has also been hotly debated. A turning point in this debate was Kortlandt's (1988) demonstration on the basis of shared sound changes that Thraco-Armenian had separated from Phrygian and other originally Balkan languages at an early stage. The consensus has now returned to regarding Greek as the closest relative."
- ^
Obrador-Cursach 2020
, pp. 238?239: "To the best of our current knowledge, Phrygian was closely related to Greek. This affirmation is consistent with the vision offered by Neumann (1988: 23), Brixhe (2006) and Ligorio and Lubotsky (2018: 1816) and with many observations given by ancient authors. Both languages share 34 of the 36 features considered in this paper, some of them of great significance:
... The available data suggest that Phrygian and Greek coexisted broadly from pre-historic to historic times, and both belong to a common linguistic area (Brixhe 2006: 39?44)."
- ^
Obrador-Cursach 2020
, p. 243: "With the current state of our knowledge, we can affirm that Phrygian is closely related to Greek. This is not a surprising conclusion: ancient sources and modern scholars agree that Phrygians did not live far from Greece in pre-historic times. Moreover, the last half century of scientific study of Phrygian has approached both languages and developed the hypothesis of a Proto-Greco-Phrygian language, to the detriment to other theories like Phrygio-Armenian or Thraco-Phrygian."
- ^
Ligorio & Lubotsky 2018
, pp. 1816?1817: "Phrygian is most closely related to Greek. The two languages share a few unique innovations,
... It is therefore very likely that both languages emerged from a single language, which was spoken in the Balkans at the end of the third millennium BCE."
- ^
Hammarstrom, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017).
"Graeco-Phrygian"
.
Glottolog 3.0
. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^
van Beek 2022
, pp. 193?197
- ^
Renfrew 1990
;
Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1990
, pp. 110?116;
Renfrew 2003
, pp. 17?48;
Gray & Atkinson 2003
, pp. 435?439
- ^
Olsen & Thorsø 2022
, pp. 209?217;
Hyllested & Joseph 2022
, pp. 225?226, 228?229, 231?241
- ^
Holm 2008
, pp. 634?635
- ^
a
b
c
Hooker, J. T. (1980).
Linear B : an introduction
. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press.
ISBN
978-0-906515-69-3
.
OCLC
7326206
.
- ^
"Cypriot syllabary"
.
Britannica Academic
. Retrieved
1 August
2017
.
- ^
Nicolas, Nick (2005).
"Greek Unicode Issues: Punctuation"
. Archived from
the original
on 6 August 2012
. Retrieved
7 October
2014
.
- ^
Hugoe, Matthews Peter (March 2014).
The concise Oxford dictionary of linguistics
. Oxford University Press. (Third ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-967512-8
.
OCLC
881847972
.
- ^
Androutsopoulos 2009
, pp. 221?249.
- ^
"Yevanic alphabet, pronunciation and language"
.
www.omniglot.com
. Retrieved
18 April
2020
.
- ^
Kotzageorgis, Phokion (2010). Gruber, Christiane J.; Colby, Frederick Stephen (eds.).
The Prophet's Ascension: Cross-cultural Encounters with the Islamic Mi'r?j Tales
. Indiana University Press. p. 297.
ISBN
978-0-253-35361-0
.
The element that makes this text a
unicum
is that it is written in Greek script. In the Ottoman Empire, the primary criterion for the selection of an alphabet in which to write was religion. Thus, people who did not speak?or even know?the official language of their religion used to write their religious texts in the languages that they knew, though in the alphabet where the sacred texts of that religion were written. Thus, the Grecophone Catholics of Chios wrote using the Latin alphabet, but in the Greek language (
frangochiotika
); the Turcophone Orthodox Christians of Cappadocia wrote their Turkish texts using the Greek alphabet (
karamanlidika
); and the Grecophone Muslims of the Greek peninsula wrote in Greek language using the Arabic alphabet (
tourkogianniotika
,
tourkokretika
). Our case is much stranger, since it is a quite early example for that kind of literature and because it is largely concerned with religious themes."; p. 306. The audience for the Greek
Mi'r?jn?ma
was most certainly Greek-speaking Muslims, in particular the so-called
Tourkogianniotes
(literally, the Turks of Jannina). Although few examples have been discovered as yet, it seems that these people developed a religious literature mainly composed in verse form. This literary form constituted the mainstream of Greek
Aljamiado
literature from the middle of the seventeenth century until the
population exchange between Greece and Turkey
in 1923. Tourkogianniotes were probably of Christian origin and were Islamized sometime during the seventeenth century. They did not speak any language other than Greek. Thus, even their frequency in attending mosque services did not provide them with the necessary knowledge about their faith. Given their low level of literacy, one important way that they could learn about their faith was to listen to religiously edifying texts such as the Greek
Mi'r?jn?ma
.
- ^
"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"
.
ohchr.org
.
- ^
"Universal Declaration of Human Rights"
.
United Nations
.
References
[
edit
]
- Alexiou, Margaret (1982).
"Diglossia in Greece"
. In Haas, William (ed.).
Standard Languages: Spoken and Written
. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 156?192.
ISBN
978-0-389-20291-2
.
- Androutsopoulos, Jannis (2009).
"
'Greeklish': Transliteration Practice and Discourse in a Setting of Computer-Mediated Digraphia"
(PDF)
. In Georgakopoulou, Alexandra; Silk, Michael (eds.).
Standard Languages and Language Standards: Greek, Past and Present
. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 221?249.
[
permanent dead link
]
- Atkinson, Quentin D.; Gray, Russel D. (2006).
"Chapter 8: How Old is the Indo-European Language Family? Illumination or More Moths to the Flame?"
. In Forster, Peter; Renfrew, Colin (eds.).
Phylogenetic Methods and the Prehistory of Languages
. Cambridge, England: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. pp. 91?109.
ISBN
978-1-902937-33-5
.
- Babiniotis, George (1992).
"The Question of Mediae in Ancient Macedonian Greek Reconsidered"
. In Brogyanyi, Bela; Lipp, Reiner (eds.).
Historical Philology: Greek, Latin and Romance
. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. pp. 29?40.
ISBN
9789027277473
.
- Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (2009).
Etymological Dictionary of Greek
. Leiden and Boston: Brill.
ISBN
978-90-04-17418-4
.
- Browning, Robert (1983) [1969].
Medieval and Modern Greek
. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-23488-7
.
- Dawkins, Richard McGillivray; Halliday, William Reginald (1916).
Modern Greek in Asia Minor: A Study of Dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa with Grammar, Texts, Translations and Glossary
. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
- Dosuna, Julian Victor Mendez (2012).
"Ancient Macedonian as a Greek Dialect: A Critical Survey on Recent Work"
. In Giannakis, Georgios K. (ed.).
Ancient Macedonia: Language, History and Culture
(in Greek). Thessaloniki: Centre for the Greek Language. pp. 65?78.
- Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V.; Ivanov, Vyacheslav (March 1990).
"The Early History of Indo-European Languages"
.
Scientific American
.
262
(3): 110?116.
Bibcode
:
1990SciAm.262c.110G
.
doi
:
10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110
. Archived from
the original
on 6 January 2014.
- Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov (1981).
Introduction to the History of the Indo-European Languages
. Sofia: Bulgarian Academy of Sciences.
ISBN
9789535172611
.
- Gray, Russel D.; Atkinson, Quentin D. (2003).
"Language-tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin"
.
Nature
.
426
(6965): 435?439.
Bibcode
:
2003Natur.426..435G
.
doi
:
10.1038/nature02029
.
PMID
14647380
.
S2CID
42340
.
- Holm, Hans J. (2008).
"The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages"
. In Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; Decker, Reinhold (eds.).
Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the Gesellschaft fur Klassifikation e.V., Albert-Ludwigs-Universitat Freiburg, March 7?9, 2007
. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 628?636.
ISBN
978-3-540-78246-9
.
- Hooker, J.T. (1976).
Mycenaean Greece
. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
ISBN
9780710083791
.
- Jeffries, Ian (2002).
Eastern Europe at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition
. London and New York: Routledge (Taylor & Francis).
ISBN
978-0-415-23671-3
.
- Ligorio, Orsat; Lubotsky, Alexander (2018).
"Phrygian"
. In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias; Wenthe, Mark (eds.).
Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics
. Vol. 3.
De Gruyter Mouton
. pp. 1816?1831.
doi
:
10.1515/9783110542431-022
.
hdl
:
1887/63481
.
ISBN
978-3-11-054243-1
.
S2CID
242082908
.
- Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (9 April 2020).
"On the place of Phrygian among the Indo-European languages"
.
Journal of Language Relationship
.
17
(3?4): 233?245.
doi
:
10.31826/jlr-2019-173-407
.
S2CID
215769896
.
- Olander, Thomas, ed. (2022).
The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective
.
Cambridge University Press
.
doi
:
10.1017/9781108758666
.
ISBN
978-1-108-49979-8
.
S2CID
161016819
.
- Ralli, Angeliki (2001).
Μορφολογ?α [Morphology]
(in Greek). Athens: Ekdoseis Pataki.
- Renfrew, Colin (1973).
"Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Model of Autochthonous Origin"
. In Crossland, R. A.; Birchall, Ann (eds.).
Bronze Age Migrations in the Aegean; Archaeological and Linguistic Problems in Greek Prehistory: Proceedings of the first International Colloquium on Aegean Prehistory, Sheffield
. London: Gerald Duckworth and Company Limited. pp. 263?276.
ISBN
978-0-7156-0580-6
.
- Renfrew, Colin (2003).
"Time Depth, Convergence Theory, and Innovation in Proto-Indo-European: 'Old Europe' as a PIE Linguistic Area"
. In Bammesberger, Alfred; Vennemann, Theo (eds.).
Languages in Prehistoric Europe
. Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag Winter GmBH. pp. 17?48.
ISBN
978-3-8253-1449-1
.
- Renfrew, Colin (1990) [1987].
Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-38675-3
.
- Scheler, Manfred (1977).
Der englische Wortschatz [English Vocabulary]
(in German). Berlin: E. Schmidt.
ISBN
978-3-503-01250-3
.
- Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2013).
"A Surviving Treaty: The Lausanne Minority Protection in Greece and Turkey"
. In Henrard, Kristin (ed.).
The Interrelation between the Right to Identity of Minorities and their Socio-economic Participation
. Leiden and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 287?315.
ISBN
9789004244740
.
- Woodhouse, Robert (2009).
"An overview of research on Phrygian from the nineteenth century to the present day"
.
Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis
.
126
(1): 167?188.
doi
:
10.2478/v10148-010-0013-x
.
ISSN
2083-4624
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Allen, W. Sidney (1968).
Vox Graeca ? A Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Greek
. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-20626-6
.
- Crosby, Henry Lamar
;
Schaeffer, John Nevin
(1928).
An Introduction to Greek
. Boston, MA; New York, NY: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
- Dionysius of Thrace
.
Bibliotheca Augustana
Τ?χνη Γραμματικ?
[
Art of Grammar
] (in Greek).
- Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter; Philippaki-Warburton, Irene (1997).
Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language
. London and New York: Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-415-10002-1
.
- Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997).
Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers
. London and New York: Longman Linguistics Library (Addison Wesley Longman Limited).
ISBN
978-0-582-30709-4
.
- Krill, Richard M. (1990).
Greek and Latin in English Today
. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers.
ISBN
978-0-86516-241-9
.
- Mallory, James P. (1997).
"Greek Language"
. In Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (eds.).
Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
. Chicago, IL: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. pp. 240?246.
ISBN
9781884964985
.
- Newton, Brian (1972).
The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology
. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-08497-0
.
- Sihler, Andrew L.
(1995).
New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin
. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-508345-3
.
- Smyth, Herbert Weir; Messing, Gordon (1956) [1920].
Greek Grammar
. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
ISBN
978-0-674-36250-5
.
External links
[
edit
]
Wikivoyage has a phrasebook for
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Venetian is either grouped with the rest of the Italo-Dalmatian or the Gallo-Italic languages, depending on the linguist.
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Overview
| |
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Regions
|
- Central Greece
(
Aetolia-Acarnania
(
Aetolia
,
Acarnania
),
Attica
,
Boeotia
,
Euboea
,
Evrytania
,
Phocis
,
Phthiotis
,
Saronic Islands
)
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(
Chania
,
Heraklion
,
Rethymno
,
Lasithi
)
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(
Andros
,
Delos
,
Kea
,
Kythnos
,
Milos
,
Mykonos
,
Naxos
,
Paros
,
Santorini
,
Syros
,
Tinos
)
- Dodecanese
(
Agathonisi
,
Astypalaia
,
Chalki
,
Kalymnos
,
Karpathos
,
Kasos
,
Kos
,
Leipsoi
,
Leros
,
Nisyros
,
Patmos
,
Rhodes
,
Symi
,
Tilos
,
Kastellorizo
)
- Epirus
(
Arta
,
Ioannina
,
Preveza
,
Thesprotia
)
- Ionian Islands
(
Corfu
,
Ithaca
,
Kefalonia
,
Kythira
,
Lefkada
,
Paxi
,
Zakynthos
)
- Macedonia
(
Chalkidiki
,
Drama
,
Florina
,
Grevena
,
Imathia
,
Kastoria
,
Kavala
,
Kilkis
,
Kozani
,
Pella
,
Pieria
,
Serres
,
Thasos
,
Thessaloniki
)
- North Aegean islands
(
Chios
,
Ikaria
,
Lemnos
,
Lesbos
,
Samos
)
- Peloponnese
(
Arcadia
,
Argolis
,
Corinthia
,
Laconia
,
Messenia
,
Achaea
,
Elis
)
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(
Karditsa
,
Larissa
,
Magnesia
,
Trikala
,
Sporades
)
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(
Evros
,
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,
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)
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,
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)
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and
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Tsipouro
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Tsikoudia
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Frappe coffee
)
- Cheeses
(
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,
Feta
,
Graviera
,
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,
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,
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,
Manouri
,
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,
Mizithra
)
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(
Amygdalopita
,
Bougatsa
,
Galaktoboureko
,
Karydopita
,
Spanakopita
,
Tiropita
)
- Greek salad
(
Dakos
)
- Meze
- Pasta (
Gogges
,
Flomaria
,
Hilopites
)
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(
Kafenio
,
Ouzeri
,
Taverna
)
- Sauces (
Skordalia
,
Taramosalata
,
Tirokafteri
,
Tzatziki
)
- Souvlaki
- Varieties (
Heptanesean
,
Cretan
,
Epirote
,
Macedonian
)
- Wine
(
Agiorgitiko
,
Aidini
,
Assyrtiko
,
Athiri
,
Kotsifali
,
Lesbian
,
Limnio
,
Mavrodafni
,
Mandilaria
,
Malagousia
,
Malvasia
,
Moschofilero
,
Retsina
,
Robola
,
Savatiano
,
Vilana
,
Xinomavro
)
|
---|
Languages
|
- Greek alphabet
(
History
,
Orthography
,
Diacritics
,
Braille
,
Cyrillization
,
Romanization
(
Greeklish
) and
numerals
- Greek language
(
Demotic
,
Katharevousa
) and
dialects
(
Cappadocian
,
Cretan
,
Cypriot
,
Greco-Australian
,
Maniot
,
Pontic
,
Tsakonian
,
Yevanic
)
- Greek Sign Language
- History
(
Mycenaean Greek
,
Ancient Greek
,
Koine Greek
,
Medieval Greek
,
Modern Greek
)
- Literature
(
Ancient
,
Medieval
,
Modern
)
- Minority Languages
(
Albanian language
(
Arvanitika
),
Aromanian
,
Balkan Romani
,
Bulgarian
,
Ladino
,
Macedonian
,
Turkish
)
- Place names
and
exonyms
- Proverbs
- Words for love
|
---|
Media
| |
---|
Music
|
- Church music
- Dances
(
Ai Georgis
,
Angaliastos
,
Antikristos
,
Ballos
,
Dionysiakos
,
Fisounis
,
Gaitanaki
,
Geranos
,
Hasapiko
,
Ikariotikos
,
Kalamatianos
,
Kangeli
,
Kastorianos
,
Kerkiraikos
,
Kleistos
,
Koftos
,
Pidikhtos
,
Leventikos
,
Maniatikos
,
Metsovitikos
,
Ntames
,
Palamakia
,
Partalos
,
Pentozali
,
Proskinitos
,
Pyrrhichios
,
Rougatsiarikos
,
Sirtaki
,
Sousta
,
Syrtos
,
Trata
,
Tsakonikos
,
Tsamikos
,
Zeibekiko
,
Zervos
)
- Entekhno
- Folk music
(
Cretan
,
Epirote
,
Heptanesian
,
Macedonian
,
Nisiotika
,
Peloponnesian
,
Pontic
,
Thessalian
,
Thracian
)
- Hip Hop
- Ionian School
- Laiko
(
Skyladiko
)
- Musical instruments
(
Askomandoura
,
Aulos
,
Bouzouki
,
Byzantine lyra
(
Cretan
,
Macedonian
,
Politiki
,
Pontic
),
Crotala
,
Floghera
,
Gaida
,
Harp
,
Laouto
,
Lyre
,
Organo
,
Pan flute
,
Phorminx
,
Psaltery
,
Salpinx
,
Santouri
,
Souravli
,
Tambouras
,
Tambourine
,
Trigono
,
Tsampouna
,
Tympano
,
Zilia
)
- Rebetiko
- Rock
(
Punk
)
|
---|
Religion
and lore
|
- Ancient religion
(
Origins
,
Modern Revival
)
- Aerico
- Buddhism
- Catholicism
- Drosoulites
- Eastern Orthodox Church
(Timeline:
Antiquity
,
Early Middle Ages
,
Late Middle Ages
,
Early Modern Era
,
19th century
,
Early 20th century
,
Late 20th century
,
Contemporary
)
- Fairy tales
- Gello
- Greek Orthodox Church
(
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
,
Church of Greece
,
Flag
)
- Greek Old Calendarists
- Hinduism
- Hypertimos
- Islam
- Judaism
(
History
)
- Kallikantzaros
- Lamia
- Mormo
- Mount Athos
- Mythology
(
Primordial deities
,
Titans
,
Twelve Olympians
,
Heracles
,
Odysseus
,
Jason
,
Oedipus
,
Perseus
,
Daedalus
,
Orpheus
,
Theseus
,
Bellerephon
,
Satyr
,
Centaur
)
- Nymph
- Protestantism
- Psychai
- Sikhism
- Thymiaterion
- Name days
- Vrykolakas
- Wayside shrine
|
---|
Sport
| |
---|
Symbols
| |
---|
|
|
|
|
---|
c.
3rd millennium BC
| c.
1600–1100 BC
| c.
800–300 BC
| c.
300 BC – AD 600
| c.
600–1453
| Since 1453
| | | | | | |
|