Country in Southern Africa
Botswana
,
[c]
officially the
Republic of Botswana
,
[d]
is a
landlocked country
in
Southern Africa
. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70 percent of its territory being the
Kalahari Desert
. It is bordered by
South Africa
to the south and southeast,
Namibia
to the west and north,
Zambia
to the north and
Zimbabwe
to the northeast. Being a country of slightly over 2.4 million people, and roughly the size of
France
, Botswana is one of the
most sparsely populated
countries in the world. It is essentially the nation state of the
Tswana people
, who make up 79% of the population.
The Tswana ethnic group were descended mainly from
Bantu-speaking tribes
who migrated southward of Africa to modern Botswana around
AD
600, living in tribal enclaves as farmers and herders. In 1885, the
British
colonised the area and declared a
protectorate
under the name of
Bechuanaland
. As
decolonisation occurred
, Bechuanaland became an independent
Commonwealth republic
under its current name on 30 September 1966. Since then, it has been a
parliamentary republic
, with a consistent record of uninterrupted democratic
elections
, though as of 2024 the
Botswana Democratic Party
has been the ruling party since independence. As of 2024, Botswana is the third least corrupt country in the continent of Africa.
The economy is dominated by
mining
and
tourism
. Botswana has a GDP (
purchasing power parity
) per capita of about $20,158 as of 2024
[update]
. Botswana is the world's biggest diamond producing country. Its relatively high
gross national income per capita
(by some estimates the fourth-largest in Africa) gives the country a relatively high
standard of living
and the second-highest
Human Development Index
of continental
Sub-Saharan Africa
(after South Africa). Botswana is a member of the
Southern African Customs Union
, the
Southern African Development Community
, the
Commonwealth of Nations
, and the
United Nations
.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The country's name means "Land of the
Tswana
", referring to the dominant
ethnic group in Botswana
.
[18]
The Constitution of Botswana recognizes a homogeneous Tswana state.
[19]
The term
Batswana
was originally applied to the Tswana, which is still the case.
[20]
However, it has also come to be used generally as a
demonym
for all citizens of Botswana.
[21]
History
[
edit
]
Early history
[
edit
]
It is estimated that hominids lived in Botswana during the
Pleistocene
.
[22]
Stone tools and fauna remains have shown that all areas of the country were inhabited at least 400,000 years ago.
[23]
Botswana was reported to be the birthplace of all
modern humans
about 200,000 years ago.
[24]
[25]
Evidence left by modern humans, such as cave paintings, is about 73,000 years old.
[26]
The earliest known inhabitants of southern Africa are thought to have been the forebears of present-day
San
("Bushmen") and
Khoi
peoples. Both groups speak
click languages
from the small
Khoe-Kwadi
,
Kx’a
and
Tuu
families whose members hunted, gathered, and traded over long distances. When cattle were first introduced about 2000 years ago into southern Africa, pastoralism became a major feature of the economy, since the region had large grasslands free of
tsetse flies
.
[27]
Domboshaba
Ruins Stone Wall
(top)
and clay pottery plate
(bottom)
It is unclear when
Bantu
-speaking peoples first moved into the country from the north, although AD 600 seems to be a consensus estimate. In that era the ancestors of the modern-day
Kalanga
moved into what is now the north-eastern areas of the country. These proto-Kalanga were closely connected to states in
Zimbabwe
as well as to the
Mapungubwe
state and the notable of these was
Domboshaba
ruins, a cultural and heritage site in Botswana originally occupied towards the end of the Great Zimbabwe period (1250?1450), with stone walls that have an average height of 1.8 metres. The site is a respected place for the people living in the region and it is believed that the chief lived on the top of the hill together with his helpers or assistants. These states, located outside of current Botswana's borders, appear to have kept massive herds of cattle in what is now the Central District?apparently at numbers approaching modern cattle density.
[28]
This massive cattle-raising complex prospered until 1300 or so and seems to have regressed following the collapse of Mapungubwe. During this era the first Tswana-speaking groups, the
Bakgalagadi
, moved into the southern areas of the
Kalahari
. All these various peoples were connected to trade routes that ran via the Limpopo River to the Indian Ocean, and trade goods from Asia such as beads made their way to Botswana, most likely in exchange for ivory, gold and
rhinoceros horn
.
[29]
Toutswemogala Hill
Iron Age Settlement's radio-carbon dates for this settlement range from 7th to late 19th century indicating occupation of more than one thousand years. The hill was part of the formation of early states in Southern Africa with cattle keeping as major source of economy. Toutswe settlement include house-floors, large heaps of vitrified cow-dung and burials while the outstanding structure is the stone wall. There are large tracts of centaurs ciliaris, a type of grass which has come to be associated with cattle-keeping settlements in South, Central Africa. Around AD 700, the
Toutswe
people moved westwards into Botswana and began an agricultural and pastoral land tenure system based on
sorghum
and
millet
, and domesticated stock, respectively.
[30]
The site was situated in the centre of a broader cultural area in Eastern Botswana and shares many commonalities with other archaeological sites of this region, in both ceramic production styles and also time frames inhabited. Large structures were observed that contained vitrified remains of animal dung, leading to the theory that these were animal enclosures and that Toutswemogala Hill was thus a major centre of animal husbandry in the region.
[30]
However, agriculture also played a vital role in the longevity of Toutswemogala Hill's extended occupation, as many grain storage structures have also been found on the site. Many different stratified layers of housing floors further signal continuous occupation over hundreds of years. The arrival of the ancestors of the Tswana-speakers who came to control the region has yet to be dated precisely. Members of the
Bakwena
, a chieftaincy under a leader named Kgabo II, made their way into the southern Kalahari by AD 1500, at the latest, and his people drove the Bakgalagadi inhabitants west into the desert. Over the years, several offshoots of the Bakwena moved into adjoining territories. The
Bangwaketse
occupied areas to the west, while the
Bangwato
moved northeast into formerly Kalanga areas.
[31]
Not long afterwards, a Bangwato offshoot known as the Batawana migrated into the
Okavango Delta
, probably in the 1790s.
[32]
Mfecane and Batswana-Boer Wars
[
edit
]
The first written records relating to modern-day Botswana appear in 1824. What these records show is that the Bangwaketse had become the predominant power in the region. Under the rule of Makaba II, the Bangwaketse kept vast herds of cattle in well-protected desert areas, and used their military prowess to raid their neighbours.
[33]
Other chiefdoms in the area, by this time, had capitals of 10,000 or so and were fairly prosperous.
[34]
This equilibrium came to end during the
Mfecane
period, 1823?1843, when a succession of invading peoples from South Africa entered the country. Although the Bangwaketse were able to defeat the invading
Bakololo
in 1826, over time all the major chiefdoms in Botswana were attacked, weakened, and impoverished. The Bakololo and
AmaNdebele
raided repeatedly and took large numbers of cattle, women, and children from the Batswana?most of whom were driven into the desert or sanctuary areas such as hilltops and caves. Only after 1843, when the Amandebele moved into western Zimbabwe, did this threat subside.
[35]
During the 1840s and 1850s trade with
Cape Colony
-based merchants opened up and enabled the
Batswana
chiefdoms to rebuild. The
Bakwena
, Bangwaketse, Bangwato and Batawana cooperated to control the lucrative ivory trade and then used the proceeds to import horses and guns, which in turn enabled them to establish control over what is now Botswana. This process was largely complete by 1880, and thus the Bushmen, the Kalanga, the Bakgalagadi, and other current minorities were subjugated by the Batswana.
[36]
Following the
Great Trek
,
Afrikaners
from the Cape Colony established themselves on the borders of Botswana in the
Transvaal
. In 1852 a coalition of
Tswana
chiefdoms led by
Sechele I
defeated Afrikaner incursions at the
Battle of Dimawe
and, after about eight years of intermittent tensions and hostilities, eventually came to a peace agreement in Potchefstroom in 1860. From that point on, the modern-day border between South Africa and Botswana was agreed on, and the Afrikaners and Batswana traded and worked together comparatively peacefully.
[37]
[38]
In 1884, Batawana, a northern-based Tswana clan's cavalry under the command of Kgosi Moremi, fought and defeated the Ndebele's invasion of northern Botswana at the
Battle of Khutiyabasadi
. This is the start of the collapse of the Ndebele Kingdom in Zimbabwe and helped the Tswana speaking authority.
[39]
Due to newly peaceful conditions, trade thrived between 1860 and 1880. Taking advantage of this were Christian
missionaries
. The
Lutherans
and the
London Missionary Society
both became established in the country by 1856. By 1880, every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence slowly became felt.
Khama III
(reigned 1875?1923) was the first of the Tswana chiefs to make Christianity a state religion and changed a great deal of Tswana customary law as a result. Christianity became the de facto official religion in all the chiefdoms by World War I.
[40]
Colonialism
[
edit
]
During the
Scramble for Africa
, the territory of Botswana was coveted by both the
German Empire
and Britain. During the
Berlin Conference
, Britain decided to annex Botswana in order to safeguard the Road to the North and thus connect the Cape Colony to its territories further north. It unilaterally annexed Tswana territories in January 1885 and then sent the
Warren Expedition
north to consolidate control over the area and convince the chiefs to accept British overrule. Despite their misgivings, they eventually acquiesced to this
fait accompli
.
[41]
[42]
In 1890, areas north of 22 degrees were added to the new Bechuanaland Protectorate. During the 1890s, the new territory was divided into eight different reserves, with fairly small amounts of land being left as freehold for white
settlers
. During the early 1890s, the British government decided to hand over the Bechuanaland Protectorate to the
British South Africa Company
. This plan, which was well on its way to fruition despite the entreaties of Tswana leaders who toured England in protest, was eventually foiled by the failure of the
Jameson Raid
in January 1896.
[43]
[44]
When the
Union of South Africa
was formed in 1910 from the main British colonies in the region, the High Commission Territories?the Bechuanaland Protectorate,
Basutoland
(now
Lesotho
), and
Swaziland
(now
Eswatini
)?were not included, but provision was made for their later incorporation. However, the UK began to consult with their inhabitants as to their wishes. Although successive South African governments sought to have the territories transferred to their jurisdiction, the UK kept delaying; consequently, it never occurred. The election of the
Nationalist
government in 1948, which instituted
apartheid
, and South Africa's withdrawal from the
Commonwealth
in 1961, ended any prospect of the UK or these territories agreeing to incorporation into South Africa.
[45]
An expansion of British central authority and the evolution of native government resulted in the 1920 establishment of two advisory councils to represent both Africans and Europeans.
[46]
The African Council consisted of the eight heads of the Tswana tribes and some elected members.
[46]
Proclamations in 1934 regulated tribal rule and powers. A European-African advisory council was formed in 1951, and the 1961 constitution established a consultative legislative council.
[47]
Independence
[
edit
]
In June 1964, the United Kingdom accepted proposals for a democratic self-government in Botswana. An independence conference was held in London in February 1966.
[48]
The seat of government was moved in 1965 from
Mahikeng
in South Africa, to the newly established
Gaborone
, which is located near Botswana's border with South Africa. Based on the 1965 constitution, the country held its first general elections under universal suffrage and gained independence on 30 September 1966.
[49]
Seretse Khama
, a leader in the independence movement,
[50]
was elected as the first president, and subsequently re-elected twice.
[51]
Khama died in office in 1980. The presidency passed to the sitting vice-president,
Quett Masire
, who was elected in his own right in 1984 and re-elected in 1989 and 1994. Masire retired from office in 1998. He was succeeded by
Festus Mogae
, who was elected in his own right in 1999 and re-elected in 2004. The presidency passed in 2008 to
Ian Khama
(son of the first president), who had been serving as Mogae's vice-president since resigning his position in 1998 as Commander of the
Botswana Defence Force
to take up this civilian role. On 1 April 2018,
Mokgweetsi Eric Keabetswe Masisi
was sworn in as the fifth president of Botswana, succeeding Ian Khama. He represents the
Botswana Democratic Party
, which has also won a majority in every parliamentary election since independence. All the previous presidents have also represented the same party.
[52]
A long-running dispute over the northern border with
Namibia
's
Caprivi Strip
was the subject of a ruling by the
International Court of Justice
in December 1999. It ruled that
Kasikili Island
belongs to Botswana.
[53]
Geography
[
edit
]
At 581,730 km
2
(224,607 sq mi), Botswana is the world's 48th-largest country.
[54]
It also has a mean altitude of roughly 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) above sea level.
[55]
[56]
Botswana is predominantly flat, tending towards gently rolling
tableland
.
[57]
Botswana is dominated by the
Kalahari Desert
, which covers up to 70% of its land surface.
[58]
The
Limpopo River
Basin, the major landform of all of southern Africa, lies partly in Botswana, with the basins of its tributaries, the
Notwane
,
Bonwapitse
,
Mahalapye
,
Lotsane
,
Motloutse
and the
Shashe
, located in the eastern part of the country.
[59]
The Notwane provides water to the capital through the
Gaborone Dam
.
[60]
The Chobe River meets with the
Zambezi River
at a place called
Kazungula
.
[61]
Biodiversity and conservation
[
edit
]
Botswana has diverse areas of wildlife habitat.
[62]
In addition to the delta and desert areas, there are
grasslands
and
savannas
.
[62]
Northern Botswana has one of the few remaining large populations of the endangered
African wild dog
.
[63]
Chobe National Park
in the
Chobe District
has the world's largest concentration of
African elephants
. The park covers about 11,000 km
2
(4,247 sq mi) and supports about 350 species of birds.
[64]
The Chobe National Park and
Moremi Game Reserve
(in the Okavango Delta) are major tourist destinations.
[65]
Other reserves include the
Central Kalahari Game Reserve
located in the Kalahari Desert in
Ghanzi District
;
Makgadikgadi Pans National Park
and
Nxai Pan National Park
are in
Central District
in the
Makgadikgadi Pan
.
[66]
Botswana faces two major
environmental
problems,
drought
and
desertification
, which are heavily linked. Three-quarters of the country's human and animal populations depend on groundwater due to drought.
Groundwater
use through deep borehole drilling has somewhat eased the effects of drought. Surface water is scarce in Botswana and less than 5% of the agriculture in the country is sustainable by rainfall. In the remaining 95% of the country, raising livestock is the primary source of rural income. Approximately 71% of the country's land is used for communal grazing, which has been a major cause of the desertification and the accelerating soil erosion of the country.
[67]
Since raising livestock has been profitable for the people of Botswana, they continue to exploit the land with dramatically increasing numbers of animals. From 1966 to 1991, the livestock population grew from 1.7
million to 5.5
million.
[67]
: 64
Similarly, the human population has increased from 574,000 in 1971 to 1.5
million in 1995, a 161% increase in 24
years.
[68]
Over 50% of all households in Botswana own cattle, which is currently the largest single source of rural income. Rangeland degradation or desertification is regarded as the reduction in land productivity as a result of overstocking and overgrazing, or as a result of veld product gathering for commercial use. Degradation is exacerbated by the effects of drought and climate change.
[67]
Environmentalists report that the Okavango Delta is drying up due to the increased grazing of livestock.
[69]
The Okavango Delta is one of the major semi-forested wetlands in Botswana and one of the largest inland deltas in the world; it is a crucial ecosystem to the survival of many animals.
[69]
The Department of Forestry and Range Resources has already begun to implement a project to reintroduce indigenous vegetation into communities in Kgalagadi South, Kweneng North and Boteti.
[70]
Reintroduction of indigenous vegetation will help reduce the degradation of the land. The
United States Government
has also entered into an agreement with Botswana, giving them US$7 million to reduce Botswana's debt by US$8.3 million. The stipulation of the US reducing Botswana's debt is that Botswana will focus on more extensive
conservation
of the land.
[69]
The country had a 2018
Forest Landscape Integrity Index
mean score of 9.13/10, ranking it 8th globally out of 172 countries.
[71]
The
United Nations Development Programme
claims that poverty is a major problem behind the
overexploitation
of resources, including land, in Botswana. The UNDP joined in with a project started in the southern community of Struizendam in Botswana. The purpose of the project is to draw from "indigenous knowledge and traditional land management systems". The leaders of this movement are supposed to be the people in the community to draw them in, in turn increasing their possibilities to earn an income and thus decreasing poverty. The UNDP also stated that the government has to effectively implement policies to allow people to manage their own local resources and are giving the government information to help with policy development.
[72]
Government and politics
[
edit
]
Botswana is a
parliamentary republic
governed by the
Constitution of Botswana
,
[73]
and it is the longest uninterrupted democracy in Africa.
[74]
Its seat of government is in
Gaborone
.
[75]
Botswana's governing institutions were established after it became an independent nation in 1966. Botswana's governmental structure is based on both the
Westminster system
of the United Kingdom and the tribal governments of the Tswana people.
[73]
Botswana has a
centralized government
in which national law supersedes local law.
[76]
Local laws are developed by local councils and district councils.
[77]
They are heavily influenced by tribal governments, which are led by the tribe's chief.
[77]
The
Parliament of Botswana
consists of the
National Assembly
, which serves as the nation's formal legislature, and the
Ntlo ya Dikgosi
, an advisory body made up of tribal chiefs and other appointed members.
[78]
Botswana's executive branch is led by the
President of Botswana
, who serves as both the
head of state
and
head of government
.
[73]
The members of parliament choose the president,
[79]
and the president then appoints the
Vice-President
and the members of the
Cabinet
.
[80]
The president has significant power in Botswana, and the legislature has little power to
check
the president once appointed.
[79]
[81]
The judiciary includes the
High Court of Botswana
, the Court of Appeal, and Magistrates' Courts.
[82]
Cases are often settled by customary courts with tribal chiefs presiding.
[77]
Elections in Botswana
are held every five years and overseen by the
Independent Electoral Commission
(IEC).
[83]
Botswana operates a
multi-party system
in which
many political parties
compete in elections,
[74]
but it is effectually a
dominant-party
state in which the
Botswana Democratic Party
has ruled with a majority government since independence.
[84]
The nation's elections are recognized as
free and fair
, but the ruling party has institutional advantages that other parties do not.
[83]
[86]
Factionalism
is common within Botswana's political parties, and several groups have formed new parties by splitting from established ones.
[74]
Since 2019, the
Umbrella for Democratic Change
has operated as a coalition of opposition parties.
[87]
The most recent election was held
in 2019
, with the Botswana Democratic Party maintaining its majority and
Mokgweetsi Masisi
being re-elected president.
In Botswana's early years, its politics were managed by President
Seretse Khama
and Vice-President (later president)
Quett Masire
.
Since the
Kgabo Commission
in 1991, factionalism and political rivalries have dominated Botswana politics. The
Barata-Phathi
faction was led by
Peter Mmusi
,
Daniel Kwelagobe
, and
Ponatshego Kedikilwe
, while the
A Team
faction was led by
Mompati Merafhe
and Jacob Nkate.
[90]
[91]
When
Festus Mogae
and
Ian Khama
became president and vice-president, respectively, they aligned with the A Team. Khama effectively expelled the A Team from the party in 2010 after he became president.
[91]
A new rivalry formed in 2018 when Khama's chosen successor, Mokgweetsi Masisi, became president. He opposed Khama, and the two formed a political rivalry that looms over Batswana politics in the 2020s.
[92]
Botswana was ranked as a "flawed democracy" and 33rd out of 167 states in the 2023
Democracy Index (The Economist)
, which was the second highest rating in Africa, and highest ranking in continental Africa (only the offshore island nation of
Mauritius
bested its ranking).
[93]
According to the 2024
V-Dem Democracy indices
, Botswana is considered to be an electoral democracy.
[94]
The 2023
Transparency International
Corruption Index
ranks Botswana is the third least corrupt country in Africa and ranks just below
Cabo Verde
and
the Seychelles
.
[95]
Botswana is also a member of the
Commonwealth of Nations
.
[96]
Foreign relations and military
[
edit
]
At the time of independence, Botswana had no armed forces. It was only after the
Rhodesian
and
South African armies
attacked the
Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army
and
Umkhonto we Sizwe
[97]
bases respectively that the
Botswana Defence Force
(BDF) was formed in 1977.
[98]
The president is
commander-in-chief
of the armed forces and appoints a defence council and the BDF currently consists of roughly 60,000 servicemen. In 2019, Botswana signed the UN
treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
.
[99]
Following political changes in South Africa and the region, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on prevention of
poaching
,
preparing for disasters
, and foreign
peacekeeping
. The United States has been the largest single foreign contributor to the development of the
BDF
, and a large segment of its officer corps have received U.S. training. The Botswana government gave the United States permission to explore the possibility of establishing an Africa Command (
AFRICOM
) base in the country.
[100]
Human rights
[
edit
]
The
Botswana Centre for Human Rights
, Ditshwanelo, was established in 1993.
[101]
Until June 2019,
homosexual acts
were illegal in Botswana. A Botswana High Court decision of 11 June of that year struck down provisions in the Criminal Code that punished "carnal knowledge of any person against the order of nature" and "acts of gross indecency", making Botswana one of twenty-two African countries that have either
decriminalised
or
legalised
homosexual acts.
[102]
Capital punishment
is a legal penalty for murder in Botswana, and executions are carried out by hanging.
[103]
San and other indigenous tribes
[
edit
]
Many of the indigenous
San people
have been forcibly relocated from their land to reservations. To make them relocate, they were denied access to water on their land and faced arrest if they hunted, which was their primary source of food.
[104]
Their lands lie in the middle of the world's richest
diamond
field. Officially, the government denies that there is any link to mining and claims the relocation is to preserve the wildlife and ecosystem, even though the San people have lived sustainably on the land for millennia.
[104]
On the reservations, they struggle to find employment, and
alcoholism
is rampant.
[104]
On 24 August 2018, the UN Special Rapporteur on Minorities, Fernand de Varennes, issued a statement calling on Botswana "to step up efforts to recognise and protect the rights of minorities in relation to public services, land and resource use, and the use of
minority languages
in education and other critical areas."
[105]
Administrative divisions
[
edit
]
Botswana is divided into 10 administrative
districts
, two city districts, four towns,
[106]
11 sub districts, and in total, 16 administrative divisions.
[106]
These are administered by 16 local authorities (district councils, city councils or town councils).
[107]
[108]
[109]
[110]
In 1977, Botswana's administrative divisions were Ngamiland, Chobe, Francistown, Ngwato, Tuli, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Ngwaketse, Kweneng, Gaborone, and Lobatse.
[111]
In 2006, Chobe was removed from being an administrative division, and Ngamiland's name was changed to North West district. Chobe was readded on 31 March 2014. That same day, the administrative divisions Francistown, Gaborone, Jwaneng, Lobatse, Selibe Phikwe, and Sowa Town were all added.
[106]
As of 2024, the 16 administrative divisions of Botswana are Central, Chobe, Francistown, Gaborone, Ghanzi, Jwaneng, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse, North East, North West, South East, Southern, Selibe Phikwe and Sowa Town.
[106]
Economy
[
edit
]
Since independence, Botswana has had one of the fastest growth rates in per capita income in the world.
[112]
Formerly one of the world's poorest countries?with a GDP per capita of about US$70 per year in the late 1960s,
[113]
Botswana has transformed itself into an upper middle-income country. GDP per capita grew from $439 in 1950 to $15,842 in 2018.
[114]
Although Botswana was resource-abundant, a good institutional framework allowed the country to reinvest resource-income in order to generate stable future income.
[115]
By one estimate, it has the fourth highest
gross national income
at
purchasing power parity
in Africa, giving it a standard a relatively high standard of living in Africa, around that of Mexico.
[116]
The
Ministry of Trade and Industry of Botswana
is responsible for promoting
business development
throughout the country. According to the
International Monetary Fund
, economic growth averaged over 9% per year from 1966 to 1999. Botswana has a
high level of economic freedom
compared to other African countries.
[117]
The government has maintained a sound
fiscal policy
, despite consecutive
budget deficits
in 2002 and 2003, and a negligible level of
foreign debt
. It earned the highest sovereign
credit rating
in Africa and has stockpiled foreign exchange reserves (over $7 billion in 2005/2006) amounting to almost two and a half years of current imports.
[118]
The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the government respects this in practice. The legal system is sufficient to conduct secure commercial dealings, although a growing backlog of cases prevents timely trials. Botswana is ranked second only to South Africa among sub-Saharan African countries in the 2014 International Property Rights Index.
[119]
Gemstones and precious metals
[
edit
]
In Botswana, the Department of Mines and Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security maintains data regarding mining throughout the country.
[121]
[122]
Debswana
, the largest
diamond mining
company operating in Botswana, is a joint venture, 50% owned by the government.
[123]
The mineral industry provides about 40% of all government revenues.
[124]
Uranium mining has not started in Botswana, however the Letlhakane Uranium Project in Africa is one of the largest undeveloped uranium projects.
[125]
The government announced in early 2009 that they would try to diversify their economy and overreliance on diamonds.
[126]
Tourism
[
edit
]
The Botswana Tourism Organisation is the country's official tourism group.
[127]
Other destinations in Botswana include the Gaborone Yacht Club and the Kalahari Fishing Club; it has natural attractions such as the Gaborone Dam and Mokolodi Nature Reserve. There are
golf courses
that are maintained by the Botswana Golf Union (BGU).
[128]
In 2014, the
Okavango Delta
of Botswana, the largest inland delta in the world, was inscribed as the 1,000th
World Heritage Site
.
[129]
Infrastructure
[
edit
]
Botswana has 971 kilometres (603 mi) of railway lines, 18,482 kilometres (11,484 mi) of roads, and 92 airports, of which 12 have paved runways. The paved road network has almost entirely been constructed since independence in 1966. The national airline is
Air Botswana
, which flies domestically to other countries in Africa.
Botswana Railways
is the national railway company operating primarily in the Southern African regional railway system. Botswana Railways offers rail-based transport facilities for moving a range of commodities for the mining sector and primary industries, as well as passenger train services and dry ports.
[130]
[131]
In terms of power infrastructure in Botswana, the country produces coal for electricity and oil is imported into the country. Recently, the country has taken a large interest in renewable energy sources and has completed a comprehensive strategy that will attract investors in the wind, solar and biomass renewable energy industries. Botswana's power stations include
Morupule B Power Station
(600 MW),
Morupule A Power Station
(132 MW),
Orapa Power Station
(90 MW),
Phakalane Power Station
(1.3 MW) and
Mmamabula Power Station
(300 MW), which is expected to be online in the near future. A 200 MW
solar power plant
is at the planning and design stage by Ministry of Mineral Resources, Green Technology and Energy Security.
[132]
[133]
In a
State of the Nation Address
2020 summit, it was announced that Botswana has a network of
roads
, of varied quality and capacity, totalling about 31,747 kilometres (19,727 mi). Of these, 20,000 kilometres (12,000 mi) are paved, including 134 kilometres (83 mi) of motorways.
[134]
The remaining 11,747 kilometres (7,299 mi) worth are unpaved. Road distances are shown in kilometres and speed limits are indicated in
kilometres per hour
(kph) or by the use of the national speed limit (NSL) symbol. Some vehicle categories have various lower maximum limits enforced by
speed limits
, for example trucks.
[135]
Demographics
[
edit
]
As of 2024, the
Tswana
are the majority ethnic group in Botswana, making up approximately 79% of the population, followed by
Kalanga
at 11% and
the San (Basarwa)
at 3%. The remaining 7% is made up of
White Batswana
/European Batswana,
[136]
Indians
,
[3]
and a number of other smaller Southern African ethnic groups.
Native groups include the
Bayei
, Bambukushu,
Basubia
, Baherero and
Bakgalagadi
. The Indian minority is made up of both recent migrants and descendants of Indian migrants who arrived from
Mozambique
,
Kenya
,
Tanzania
,
Mauritius
and
South Africa
.
[137]
Since 2000, because of deteriorating economic conditions in
Zimbabwe
, the number of
Zimbabweans in Botswana
has risen into the tens of thousands.
[138]
Fewer than 10,000
San people
are still living their traditional
hunter-gatherer
way of life. Since the mid-1990s the central government of Botswana has been trying to move San out of their historic lands, with the main reason possibly being that they live on a diamond-rich region.
[139]
James Anaya
, as the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people for the
United Nations
in 2010, described loss of land as a major contributor to many of the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, citing the San's eviction from the
Central Kalahari Game Reserve
(CKGR)
[140]
as a special example.
[141]
: 2
Among Anaya's recommendations in a report to the
United Nations Human Rights Council
was that development programs should promote, in consultation with indigenous communities such as the San and Bakgalagadi people, activities in harmony with the culture of those communities such as traditional hunting and gathering activities.
[141]
: 19
Largest cities or towns in Botswana
Census Botswana 2022
[142]
|
|
Rank
|
Name
|
District
|
Municipal pop.
|
Rank
|
Name
|
District
|
Municipal pop.
|
|
Gaborone
Francistown
|
1
|
Gaborone
|
South-East
|
246,325
|
11
|
Kanye
|
Southern
|
48,028
|
Maun
|
2
|
Francistown
|
North-East
|
103,417
|
12
|
Selibe Phikwe
|
Central
|
42,488
|
3
|
Mogoditshane
|
Kweneng
|
88,006
|
13
|
Letlhakane
|
Central
|
36,338
|
4
|
Maun
|
North-West
|
84,993
|
14
|
Ramotswa
|
South-East
|
33,271
|
5
|
Molepolole
|
Kweneng
|
74,674
|
15
|
Lobatse
|
South-East
|
29,772
|
6
|
Serowe
|
Central
|
55,676
|
16
|
Mmopane
|
Kweneng
|
25,345
|
7
|
Tlokweng
|
South-East
|
55,508
|
17
|
Thamaga
|
Kweneng
|
25,297
|
8
|
Palapye
|
Central
|
52,636
|
18
|
Moshupa
|
Southern
|
23,858
|
9
|
Mochudi
|
Kgatleng
|
50,317
|
19
|
Tonota
|
Central
|
23,296
|
10
|
Mahalapye
|
Central
|
48,431
|
20
|
Bobonong
|
Central
|
21,216
|
Languages
[
edit
]
The official language of Botswana is English, while
Setswana
is widely spoken across the country.
[1]
In Setswana,
prefixes
are more important than they are in many other languages, since Setswana is a
Bantu language
and has noun classes denoted by these prefixes. They include
Bo
, which refers to the country,
Ba
, which refers to the people,
Mo
, which is one person, and
Se
which is the language. For example, the main ethnic group of Botswana is the Tswana people, hence the name Botswana for its country. The people as a whole are Batswana, one person is a Motswana, and the language they speak is Setswana.
[143]
[144]
Other languages spoken in Botswana include
Kalanga
(Sekalanga),
Sarwa
(Sesarwa),
Ndebele
, Kgalagadi, Tswapong,
!Xoo
, Yeyi, and, in some parts,
Afrikaans
.
[145]
Religion
[
edit
]
An estimated 77% of the country's citizens identify as
Christians
.
Anglicans
,
Methodists
, and the
United Congregational Church of Southern Africa
make up the majority of Christians. There are also congregations of
Lutherans
,
Baptists
,
Roman Catholics
,
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
, the
Dutch Reformed Church
,
Mennonites
,
Seventh-day Adventists
,
Jehovah's Witnesses
and
Serbian Orthodox
in the country. According to the 2001 census, the nation has around 5,000
Muslims
(mainly from
South Asia
), 3,000
Hindus
, and 700 of the
Baha?i Faith
. Approximately 20% of citizens identify with
no religion
.
[146]
Health
[
edit
]
Botswana's healthcare system has been steadily improving and expanding,
[147]
specifically in the fact that the infant mortality and maternal mortality rates are steadily declining.
[148]
85 percent of the population live within a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) radius of a health facility. 73 percent of pregnant women access antenal care services at least four times. Almost 100 percent of births in Botswana take place in hospitals.
[147]
The Ministry of Health
[149]
in Botswana is responsible for overseeing the quality and distribution of
healthcare
throughout the country.
Life expectancy
at birth was 55 in 2009 according to the World Bank, having previously fallen from a peak of 64.1 in 1990 to a low of 49 in 2002.
[150]
After Botswana's 2011 census, current life expectancy is estimated at 54.06 years.
[3]
The
Cancer Association of Botswana
is a voluntary
non-governmental organisation
. The association is a member of the Union for International Cancer Control. The Association supplements existing services through provision of cancer prevention and health awareness programs, facilitating access to health services for cancer patients and offering support and counselling to those affected.
[151]
HIV/AIDS epidemic
[
edit
]
Like elsewhere in Sub-Saharan Africa, the
economic impact of AIDS
is considerable. Economic development spending was cut by 10% in 2002?3 as a result of recurring budget deficits and rising expenditure on healthcare services.
Botswana has been hit
very hard by the
AIDS pandemic
; in 2006, it was estimated that life expectancy at birth had dropped from 65 to 35 years.
[152]
The life expectancy is 66.4 years as of 2024.
[18]
In 2003, the government began a comprehensive programme involving free or cheap generic
antiretroviral
drugs as well as an information campaign designed to stop the spread of the virus; in 2013, over 40% of adults in Botswana had access to antiretroviral therapy.
[153]
: 28
In the age group of 15?19 years old, prevalence was estimated at 6% for females and 3.5% for males in 2013,
[153]
: 33
and for the 20?24 age group, 15% for females and 5% for males.
[153]
: 33
Botswana is one of 21 priority countries identified by the UN AIDS group in 2011 in the Global Plan to eliminate new HIV infections among children and to keep their mothers alive.
[153]
: 37
From 2009 to 2013, the country saw a decrease over 50% in new HIV infections in children.
[153]
: 38
Less than 10% of pregnant HIV-infected women were not receiving antiretroviral medications in 2013, with a corresponding large decrease (over 50%) in the number of new HIV infections in children under 5.
[153]
: 39, 40
. Among the UN Global Plan countries, people living with HIV in Botswana have the highest percentage receiving antiretroviral treatment: about 75% for adults (age 15+) and about 98% for children.
[153]
: 237
With a nationwide Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission program, Botswana has reduced HIV transmission from infected mothers to their children from about 40% in 2003 to 4% in 2010. Under the leadership of
Festus Mogae
, the Government of Botswana solicited outside help in curing people with HIV/AIDS and received early support from the
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
and the Merck Foundation, which together formed the African Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Partnership (ACHAP). Other early partners include the
Botswana?Harvard AIDS Institute
of the
Harvard School of Public Health
and the Botswana?UPenn Partnership of the
University of Pennsylvania
. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, universal access to treatment?defined as 80% coverage or greater?has been achieved in Botswana.
[154]
The country has been adversely affected by the
HIV/AIDS epidemic
. In 2002, Botswana became the first country to offer
anti-retroviral drugs
(ARVs) to help combat the epidemic.
[155]
Despite the launch of programs to make treatment available and to educate the populace about the epidemic,
[156]
the number of people with
AIDS
rose from 290,000 in 2005 to 320,000 in 2013.
[157]
{{rp|A20} However, in recent years the country has made strides in combating HIV/AIDS, with efforts being made to provide proper treatment and lower the rate of mother-to-child transmission.
[158]
[159]
Culture
[
edit
]
Folklore Musician Sereetsi
(top)
and traditional basket
(bottom)
Botswana's music is mostly vocal and performed, sometimes without drums depending on the occasion; it also makes heavy use of string instruments. Botswana folk music has instruments such as setinkane (a sort of miniature piano), segankure/segaba (a Motswana version of the Chinese instrument
erhu
), moropa (
meropa
for plural) and phala (a whistle used mostly during celebrations). The hands are sometimes used as musical instruments too, by either clapping them together or against
phathisi
(goat skin turned inside out wrapped around the calf area, only used by men) to create music and rhythm. The national anthem is "
Fatshe leno la rona
", which was written and composed by Kgalemang Tumediso Motsete; it was adopted upon independence in 1966.
[160]
[161]
[162]
In the northern part of Botswana, women in the villages of Etsha and
Gumare
are noted for their skill at crafting baskets from
mokola palm
and local
dyes
. The baskets are generally woven into three types: large, lidded baskets used for storage, large, open baskets for carrying objects on the head or for winnowing threshed grain and smaller plates for winnowing pounded grain. These baskets steadily use colour.
The oldest paintings from both Botswana and South Africa depict hunting, animal and human figures, and were made by the Khoisan (Kung San/Bushmen) over twenty thousand years ago within the
Kalahari Desert
.
[164]
Cuisine
[
edit
]
The national dish is
seswaa
, pounded meat made from goat meat or beef,
Segwapa
dried, cured meat ranging from beef to game meats, either fillets of meat cut into strips following the grain of the muscle, or flat pieces sliced across the grain. Botswana's cuisine shares some characteristics with other cuisine of Southern Africa.
[165]
Examples of Botswana food are:
bogobe
,
pap
(maize porridge),
boerewors
,
samp
,
Magwinya
and
mopane worms
. Bogobe is made by putting sorghum, maize or millet flour into boiling water, stirring into a soft paste, and cooking it slowly. A dish called
ting
is made when the sorghum or maize is fermented, and milk and sugar added. Without the milk and sugar, ting is sometimes eaten with meat or vegetables as lunch or dinner. Another way of making bogobe is to add sour milk and a cooking melon (lerotse). This dish is called
tophi
by the Kalanga tribe. Madila is a traditional fermented milk product similar to
yogurt
or
sour cream
.
[166]
Sports
[
edit
]
Football
is the most popular sport in Botswana, with qualification for the
2012 Africa Cup of Nations
being the
national team
's highest achievement to date. Other popular sports are
softball
,
cricket
,
tennis
,
rugby
,
badminton
,
handball
,
golf
, and
track and field
.
[167]
[168]
Botswana is an associate member of the
International Cricket Council
. Botswana became a member of The International Badminton Federation and Africa Badminton Federation in 1991. The
Botswana Golf Union
has an amateur golf league in which golfers compete in tournaments and championships. Botswana won the country's first
Olympic medal
in 2012 when runner
Nijel Amos
won
silver
in the
800 metres
.
In 2011,
Amantle Montsho
became
world champion
in the 400 metres and won Botswana's first athletics medal at the world level. High jumper
Kabelo Kgosiemang
is a three-time
African champion
,
Isaac Makwala
is a sprinter who specialises in the 400 metres, he was the gold medalist at the Commonwealth Games in 2018,
Baboloki Thebe
was a silver medalist in the 200 metres at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics and reached the semi-finals at the 2014 World Junior Championships in Athletics, and Ross Branch Ross, a motor-biker, holds the number one plate in the South African Cross Country Championship and has competed at the Dakar Rally.
Letsile Tebogo
set the
world junior record
in the
100 metres
with a time of 9.94 at the
2022 World Athletics Championships
, and he currently holds the 300m world's best time of 30.69 seconds. On 7 August 2021, Botswana won the bronze medal in the Men's
4 × 400 metres relay at the Olympics
in
Tokyo
. Botswana was the first African nation to host the
Netball World Youth Cup
.
[169]
[170]
The card game
bridge
has a strong following; it was first played in Botswana around 40 years ago, and it grew in popularity during the 1980s. Many British expatriate school teachers informally taught the game in Botswana's secondary schools. The Botswana Bridge Federation (BBF) was founded in 1988. Bridge has remained popular and the BBF has over 800 members.
[171]
In 2007, the BBF invited the
English Bridge Union
to host a week-long teaching programme in May 2008.
[172]
Education
[
edit
]
Botswana has made educational progress since independence in 1966. In 1966, there were only 22 graduates in the country
and only a very small percentage of the population attended secondary school. Botswana increased its adult literacy rate from 69% in 1991 to 83% in 2008.
[174]
Among sub-Saharan African countries, Botswana has one of the highest literacy rates.
[175]
As of 2024, around 88.5% of the population age 15 and over could read and write and were respectively literate.
[175]
The
Botswana Ministry of Education
[176]
is working to establish libraries in primary schools in partnership with the
African Library Project
.
[177]
The
Government of Botswana
hopes that by investing a large part of national income in education, the country will become less dependent on diamonds for its economic survival, and less dependent on expatriates for its skilled workers.
[178]
NPVET (National Policy on Vocational Education and Training) introduced policies in favour of vocational education.
[178]
Botswana invests 21% of its government spending in education.
[174]
In January 2006, Botswana announced the reintroduction of school fees after two decades of free state education,
[179]
though the government still provides full scholarships with living expenses to any Botswana citizen in university, either at the University of Botswana or if the student wishes to pursue an education in any field not offered locally, they are provided with a full scholarship to study abroad.
[180]
Science and technology
[
edit
]
As of 2024, Botswana is planning to use science and technology to diversify its economy and thereby reduce its dependence on diamond mining. To this, the government has set up six hubs since 2008, in the agriculture, diamonds, innovation, transport, health and education sectors.
[181]
Botswana published its updated
National Policy on Research, Science and Technology
in 2011, within a UNESCO project sponsored by the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation and Development (AECID). This policy was formulated in strategic documents that include Botswana's
Tenth National Development Plan
for 2016 and
Vision 2016
.
[181]
The
National Policy on Research, Science, Technology and Innovation
(2011) fixes the target of raising gross domestic expenditure on
research and development
(R&D) from 0.26% of GDP in 2012 to over 2% of GDP by 2016. This target can only be reached within the specified time frame by raising public spending on R&D.
[181]
Botswana counts one of the highest researcher densities in sub-Saharan Africa: 344 per million inhabitants (in head counts), compared to an average of 91 per million inhabitants for the subcontinent in 2013.
[181]
Botswana was ranked 85th in the
Global Innovation Index
in 2023.
[182]
[183]
In 2009, Botswana-based company Deaftronics launched a solar-powered hearing aid after six years of prototype development. Since then, Deaftronics has sold over 10,000 of the hearing aids. Priced at $200 per unit, each hearing aid includes four
rechargeable batteries
(lasting up to three years) and a
solar charger
for them. The product is inexpensive compared to many similar devices, which can start at around $600.
[184]
[185]
In 2011, Botswana's Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) unveiled Musi cattle, designed to optimise beef production. As a hybrid of the
Tswana
,
Bonsmara
,
Brahman
,
Tuli
and
Simmental
breeds,
[186]
it is hoped that the composite will lead to increased beef production.
[187]
In 2016, the Botswana Institute of Technology Research and Innovation (BITRI) developed a rapid testing kit for
foot-and-mouth disease
in collaboration with the Botswana Vaccine Institute and
Canadian Food Inspection Agency
. The kit developed in Botswana allows for on-site diagnosis to be made.
[188]
The
Square Kilometre Array
(SKA) (
MeerKAT
) consists of thousands of dishes and antennas spread over large distances linked together to form one giant telescope. Additional dishes will be located in eight other African countries Botswana among them. Botswana was selected to participate because of its ideal location in the southern hemisphere and environment, which could enable easier data collection from the universe. The Botswana government has built the SKA precursor telescope at Kgale View, which is the African Very Long Base Line Interferometry Network (AVN), it sent students on astronomy scholarships.
[189]
Botswana launched its own three-year programme to build and launch a Micro Satellite (
CubeSat
) Botswana Satellite Technology (Sat-1 Project) in Gaborone on 18 December 2020. The development of the satellite will be led by
Botswana International University of Science and Technology
(BIUST) with technical support from the
University of Oulu
in Finland and
Loon
, a giant leap forward in the realisation of Botswana's ambition to become a technologically driven economy. The satellite, which will be used for earth observation, will generate data for farm planning and real-time
virtual tourism
. It can also help predict and forecast harvest time.
[190]
[191]
In 2016, for the
IT sector
, Almaz opened a first-of-its-kind computer assembly company.
[192]
[193]
Ditec, a Botswana company, also customises, designs and manufactures
mobile phones
. Ditec is specialized in the customisation of
Microsoft
-powered devices.
[194]
On 19 November 2021, scientists at the Botswana Harvard HIV Reference Laboratory (BHHRL) first discovered the variant Omicron subsequently designated B.1.1.529, and then named "Omicron" becoming the first country in the world to discover the variant. Since early 2021, they have genome-sequenced some 2,300 positive SARS-CoV-2 virus samples. According to Dr Gaseitsiwe, Botswana's genome sequence submissions to GISAID are among the highest in the African region on a per capita basis, on a par with its well-resourced neighbour South Africa. Botswana Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership (BHP) was built in 2003, two years after the umbrella organisation opened the BHHRL, its purpose-built HIV research lab and one of the first on the continent.
[195]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
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a
b
c
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Works cited
[
edit
]
General sources
[
edit
]
This article incorporates text from a
free content
work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0. Text taken from
UNESCO Science Report: Towards 2030
, 546?547, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Charles, Thalefang (2016).
Botswana's Top50 Ultimate Experiences
. Mmegi Publishing House.
ISBN
9789996845413
.
- Acemoglu, Daron; Johnson, Simon; Robinson, James A. (11 July 2001).
"An African Success Story: Botswana"
. Archived from
the original
on 18 July 2018
. Retrieved
13 July
2018
– via mit.edu.
- Cohen, Dennis L (1979). "The Botswana Political Elite: Evidence from the 1974 General Election".
Journal of Southern African Affairs
.
4
: 347?370.
- Colclough, Christopher and Stephen McCarthy.
The Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of Growth and Income Distribution
(Oxford University Press, 1980)
- Cunningham, A.B.; Milton, S.J. (1987). "Effects of basket-weaving industry on mokola palm and dye plants in northwestern Botswana".
Economic Botany
.
41
(3): 386?402.
doi
:
10.1007/BF02859055
.
JSTOR
4254989
.
- Denbow, James & Thebe, Phenyo C. (2006).
Culture and Customs of Botswana
. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
ISBN
978-0-313-33178-7
.
- Edge, Wayne A. and Mogopodi H. Lekorwe eds.
Botswana: Politics and Society
(Pretoria: J.L. van Schaik, 1998)
- Good, Kenneth (1992). "Interpreting the Exceptionality of Botswana".
Journal of Modern African Studies
.
30
: 69?95.
doi
:
10.1017/S0022278X00007734
.
S2CID
154542272
.
- Good, Kenneth (September 1994).
"Corruption and Mismanagement in Botswana: A Best-Case Example?"
(PDF)
.
Journal of Modern African Studies
.
32
(3): 499?521.
doi
:
10.1017/S0022278X00015202
.
eISSN
1469-7777
.
ISSN
0022-278X
.
S2CID
153626418
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 3 April 2018
. Retrieved
13 July
2018
– via harvard.edu.
- Tlou, Thomas, and Alec C. Campbell.
History of Botswana
(Macmillan Botswana, 1984)
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